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< OU_1 60794
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OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
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Author Title This book should be returned on or before the date last marked below.
THE INDIAN BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
Mainly Based on
THE SADHANAMALA
and Cognate Tantric Texts of Rituals
BENOYTOSH BHATTACHARYYA, M.A.,Ph.o.
Formerly Director of Oriental Institute and General Editor, Qaekwad's Oriental Series, Baroda
FIRMA K. L. MUKHOPADHYAY
CALCUTTA 1958
Published by K. L. MUKHOPADHYAY, 6/1A, Banchharam Akrur Lane,
Calcutta- 12, India.
SECOND EDITION Revised and Enlarged with 357 Illustrations
JUNE 1958
Dr. B. Bhattacharyya Naihati, 24-Parganas
Printed by A. C. Ghosh, GHOSH PRINTING HOUSE PRIVATE LIMITED, 17 A, British Indian Street, Calcutta- 1
Bound by NEW INDIA BINDERS, 5B, Patwar Bagan Lane, Cakutta-9
S-ntcrwed to me <3olemQry of ^fattier
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The Mighty Gods and Goddesses of the Buddhist Pantheon wish to reveal themselves before the world once again through the pages of the Buddhist Iconography. Their Will is supreme. After overconv ing difficulties, delays and obstacles, the Buddhist Iconography at last is presented to the scholarly world in a second edition after a lapse of full thirty-four years. It is pleasant to live these long years to see my favourite book pass through a second edition. This is an occasion when I should remember with gratitude two of my illus* trious preceptors, Professor A. Foucher and my father Mm. Haraprasad Shastri both of whom are no longer in the land of the living. I believe in my heart of hearts that their invisible care and blessings are in a large measure responsible for this happy ending. It gives me immense .satisfaction.
When the first edition of this book was published in 1924, my studies were much hampered owing to paucity of material. But since then such a great volume of information has been published that it appears almost overwhelming. I never could think that it would be possible for me to handle such vast material in a manner befitting this serious subject. Thus the second edition goes to the world with all its imperfections of which I am conscious more than my critics.
After 1924, the texts of the Sadhanamala and the Nispannayogavali were published. Both these texts proved to be veritable mines of information on Buddhist gods and goddesses. Between the two publications, the edition of the Advayavajrasangraha and the Quhyasamaja followed in rapid succession, and the information furnished in these two excellent texts not only added to my difficulties, but also changed materially the whole outlook underlying the classi- fication and arrangement of Buddhist deities. These Sanskrit texts were published in the Qaekwad's Oriental Series when I was the General Editor under my erstwhile Master, the late His Highness Maharaja Sayaji Rap III, Gaekwad of Baroda and his illustrious Dewan Sir V. T* Krishnania Chariar, now Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission for the Republic of India.
^ > Later, publications such as the Elements of Buddhist Iconography by Coomaraswamy, die second edition of the Qods of: Northern Buddhism
VIII
by Alice Getty, the Iconography of Tibetan Lamaism by Mrs. A. K. Gordon and the Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum by my friend and colleague Dr. N. K* Bhattasali, Curator of the Dacca Museum, made my work of revision still more difficult and embarrassing !
Professor Walter Eugene Clarke of the Harvard University by publishing the two sumptuous volumes of the Two Lamaistic Pantheons served to put the proverbial last straw on the camel's back. This book published for the first time photographs of an unbelievable number of Buddhist statuettes in the Royal Temple at Peiping in Manchuria. If the statues had been entirely Chinese in character it would not have affected me in the least, because I am connected palpably with the Indian branch of Buddhist iconography. But an examination of the published photographs showed that the Peiping collection was exclu- sively inspired by Indian tradition, depended entirely on Indian texts, and faithfully followed the directions given in Sanskrit texts such as the Sadhanamala and the Nispannayogavali. The remarkable Indian character of the Chinese statuettes led me to include a large number of them in this book, and their study made the task of revision not only difficult but also delicate by forcing me to include Chinese specimens in a book which is chiefly concerned with the Indian branch of Buddhist iconography. I must thank the learned American author Professor Clarke for imposing on me this additional labour and responsibility !
The study of the Buddhist branch of Indian iconography is one of the most interesting and fascinating of all studies. In Buddhist icono- graphy the whole world is interested because Buddhism is not confined within the limits of India like Hinduism or Jainism, but travelled far and wide beyond the Himalayas to Tibet, China, Japan, Korea and Mongolia on one side, and to Indo-China, Siam, Indonesia, Burma and Ceylon on the other. In the time of the great Achaemenid Emperor Darius, Lord Buddha laid the foundation of a religion which was destined to be the religion of one third of the population of the globe. The fountain head of inspiration relating to Buddhist icono- graphy was furnished by the ancient Sanskrit manuscripts of India, and the ideas and directions contained therein travelled to different coun- tries, notably Tibet and China, where they were coloured by the art and culture characteristics of the respective peoples. We have now reached a stage where it is no longer possible to isolate Buddhist icono- graphy of India from its developments in Tibet and China which wer^ profoundly influenced by the Buddhist Tantras of India, And thp chief need of the subject is the publication of a great volume of
IX
original and unpublished manuscript material that lies hidden in the archives of MSS Libraries throughout the world. When this huge material is published then alone the study of Buddhist iconography can be said to be complete.
The second edition has been thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged. New chapters have been incorporated, old chapters have been redistri- buted. Many pictures have been deleted, and many new ones have been included in order to make the study as up-to-date as possible. In 1924, when the first edition 'was published, I could only see the material side of the problem. But with the availability of fresh material, the other side, namely the psychic side, also became apparent. Evidence of this change will be found in the introduction which is almost wholly re-written, as also in other chapters, notably on the Dhyani Buddhas. I offer an explanation here lest my readers receive a shock while reading this book in a second edition. I may further point out that repetitions in a book of this kind can hardly be avoided, and deities have been repeated at different places for different purposes and in different contexts. My critics of the first edition will also notice how irregularit- ies pointed out by them have been regularised in the second edition
In preparing this edition I have received help from a number of persons. With their help I could complete the revision and place the book in the hands of scholars in its present form. First of all, it is my sacred duty to acknowledge the debt I owe' to the late lamented Dr. N. P. Chakravarti, one-time Director-General of Archaeology in India, for graciously permitting me to reproduce all the photographs belonging to the Department as were included in the first edition. These photographs either purchased direct or reproduced from Depart- mental publications are shown in the list of Acknowledgements. It is hardly necessary for me to add that iconographic studies in India are not possible without the generous help of the Archaeological Department — help that is always given cheerfully as also gracefully.
Shrimati Hansa Ben Mehta, the talented Vice-Chancellor of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, has laid me under a deep debt of obligation by ordering a loan for the purpose of reproduction, of nine full-page blocks belonging to the University. As the Baroda Museum now belongs to this University I have to thank the Vice- Chancellor also for using the Baroda Museum specimens in this book.
It is difficult for me to adequately express my gratitude and thank- fulness to our worthy colleague and associate, Prof. Walter Eugene CSark, Wales Professor of Sanskrit in the Harvard University, who
gSve me permission to reproduce as many photographs as I liked from \<
B
X
his monumental book : Two Lamaistic Pantheons. He made no conditions, and I am simply overwhelmed with his kindness and generosity.
To my friend and colleague, Dr. Hermann Goetz, formerly Curator of the Baroda Museum, I feel very deeply indebted for allowing me to take a number of photographs of interesting Buddhist images deposited in the Baroda Museum years ago, for their eventual reproduction in this volume from my own negatives. All the statuettes belonging to the Baroda Museum and published in this book show the place of their origin at the foot of each and every such illustration. I have to thank the Baroda Musuem authorities and Dr. Goetz, the eminent art-critic, very heartily for the favours enumerated above.
Pandit Siddhiharsha Vajracaryya of Nepal, my friend, philosopher and guide, helped me at every step. He supplied copies of rare manus- cripts and original Nepalese drawings of rare deities whenever there was need for them. The drawings of the Twenty-Five Bodhisattvas were all procured by him from Nepalese artists. Out of this number, sixteen were copied from stone images in one of the famous Caityas of Patan in Nepal. I am deeply indebted to him, as also to his son Dharmaharsha and his grandson Purnaharsha Vajracaryya for their intelligent, prompt, active and effective co-operation. I am also grate* ful to my old artist of Nepal, Virman Chitrakar who supplied all the Nepalese drawings illustrated in the first edition.
To Professor N. A. Gore I am indebted for three beautiful photo- graphs : one of Ganapati (four-armed) and two of the rare deity Simhasya from originals in the collection of his father-in-law, Dr. H. G. Moghe, L. D. S., R. C. S. ( Eng* ) of Khar, Bombay. I express my gratitude to both while reproducing all the three photographs in this edition.
I take this opportunity of once again recording my heartfelt thanks to Dr. W. Y. Evans- Wentz who allowed me years ago to reproduce some of the miniatures in his possession. His name is mentioned at appropriate places.
My grateful thanks are also due to Miss Raihana Tyabji, the mystic daughter of the illustrious Indian leader, the late Shri Abbas Tyabji, for going through the first edition for the purpose of a detailed revision more than 15 years ago.
I am also indebted to the Manager, Bomby Branch of the Oxford University Press for readily agreeing to have this second edition pub" lished through Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, It was he who pursua*
ded me, much against my wishes, to revise the book for a second edition as early as 1949. I have many reasons to be thankful to him.
It is my pleasant duty to express my indebtedness to the Curators, Keepers and Superintendents of Museums, Picture Galleries, image collections, and the rest, wherefrom images in metal, stone and paint' ings have been selected for reproduction in this volume. I am parti* culary grateful to the authorities of the Indian Museum, Calcuttta, the Museum and Picture Gallery at Baroda, the Provincial Museum, Lucknow, the Museums at Sarnath, Nalanda and Dacca, the Vangiya Sahitya Parisat Museum, Calcutta, and the Palace Temple Collection of images at Peiping in Manchuria. To all of them I tender my grateful acknowledgments.
All those Universities of India which prescribed the first edition of the Indian Buddhist Iconography as a textbook for the M.A. Examination in Ancient Indian History and Culture, deserve my grateful thanks for selecting the book. It is hoped that the authorities will extend the same patronage to the second edition which is now published.
My grateful thanks are due to Messrs. Ghosh Printing House Private Limited, Calcutta, especially Shri P. C. Basak, for exercising great care on the accurate printing and excellent geMip of this volume. In spite of our best efforts, however, a few errors have crept in, and for these I crave the indulgence of my readers. These are mostly minor errors and can be corrected with ease. Shri N. L. Dutt has also been very helpful, and I acknowledge my indebtedness to him.
Lastly, I am duty bound to acknowledge my indebtedness to my brother Shriyut Paritosh Bhattacharyya of Messrs. Sandal &. Co., Calcutta, for his sustained encouragement and for his many acts of kindness.
My gratitude to Shri K. L. Mukhopadhyay of Firma K. L. Mukho* padhyay knows no bounds, for all that he has done in bringing out this edition in its present form. I thank him cordially and bless him heartily.
This time I can only inscribe the book to the memory of my loving father, the late Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasad Shastri in whose invisi- ble but tender care I have the honour to place this second edition of Buddhist Iconography.
Shastri Villa
Naihati (West Bengal) B. BHATTACHARYYA
Rathayatra 1958
ABBREVIATIONS
A Appendix
ADV Advayavajrasangraha
ASI Archaeological Survey of India
Bendall Professor Cecil Beridall
Bhattasali (Dr.) N. K. Bhattasali
Clark Professor Walter Eugene Clark
Foucher Professor A. Foucher
Getty Miss Alice Getty
GNB Qods of Northern Buddhism
Gordon Mrs. A.K.Gordon
GOS Qaekwad's Oriental Series
IBBS Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures i
the Dacca Museum
ITL Iconography of Tibetan Lamaism
JASB Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
JBORS Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society
JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Qreat Britain
Kern Professor H. Kern
NSP Nispannayogavall
Samasrami Pandit Satyavrata Samasrami
TLP Two Lamaistic Pantheons, 2 Vols.
Vogel Professor J. Ph. Vogel
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Grateful acknowledgments are made of the Courtesy and Copy* right of the following institutions among others and of private collec- tions, with their officers, curators, keepers, superintendents as well as individual owners, while reproducing photographs of images, bronzes, sculptures, bas-reliefs, statuettes, miniatures and blocks in their charge, the copyright being reserved in all appropriate cases.
L The Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi along with the Archaeological Museums at Calcutta, Lucknow, Sarnath and Nalanda functioning under the Department, in respect of Figures : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 17,26,27,45,46,77,81,83,84,85,94,95,96,98, 99, 101, 104, 105, 107, 116, 130, 138, 140, 142, 148, 152, 153, 154, 156, 166, 167, 169, 180, 189, 190 and 233.
II. The Museum and Picture Gallery under the M. S. University, Baroda, in respect of Figures : 13, 16, 42, 74, 75, 87, 92, 97, 106, 127, 131, 160,163,168 and 188,
III. The Palace Temple at Peiping in Manchuria and the author of the Two Lamaistic Pantheons, 2 Vols., Professor Walter Eugene Clark, in respect of Figures : 30, 50, 71, 80, 111, 114, 115, 122, 123, 129, 133, 183, 193, 194, 195, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 231, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247 and 248.
IV* Professor W. Y. Evans- Wentz (private collection), in respect of Figures : 19, 22, 28, 33, 37, 150, 157, 165, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200 and 229.
V. Dacca Museum, Dacca (East Pakistan), in respect of Figures : 89, 125, 185 and 249.
VI. Vahglya Sahitya Parisat, Calcutta, in respect of Figures : 93 and 149.
VII. Dr. H. G. Moghe, L.D.S., R.C.S. (Eng.), of Khar, Bombay (private collection), in respect of Figures : 215, 216 and 227.
VIIL Berlin Museum, Berlin, Germany, in respect of Figure « 90. IX. Leiden Museum, Leiden, Holland, in respect of Figure : 141,
XIV
X. The Late Mr. W. B. Whitney of New York (private collection), in respect of Figure : 161.
XL The Hindu Monastery at Bodh Gaya, in respect of Figure : 1 64- XIL Dacca Sahitya Parisat, Dacca (East Pakistan), in respect of Figure : 184.
XIIL Her Highness The Dowager Maharani Chimanabai Gaekwad of Baroda (private collection), in respect of Figure : 228.
XIV, The Oriental Institute of the M.S. University, Baroda for the loan of nine full page blocks, in respect of Figures : 89, 99. 103, 105, 156, 166, 169, 173 and 177.
XV. The Indian Museum, Calcutta, in respect of Figures : 1,3, 4, 5, 26, 45, 46, 81, 84, 85, 95, 104, 138, 140, 142, 148, 152, 153, 156, 167, 169, 180 and 190.
XVL The Nalanda Museum, Nalanda (Bihar), in respect of Figures ; 17, 27, 189 and 233.
XVII. The Provincial Museum, Lucknow, in respect of Figures : 99, 105, 154 and 166,
XVIIL The Saranath Museum, Saranath (Benares), in respect of Figures : 77, 94, 98, 107, 116 and 130.
XIX. Pandits Siddhiharsha, Dharmaharsha and Purnaharsha Vajra- caryya of Kathmandu (Nepal), in respect of Nepalese images repn> duced in Figures : 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 29, 43, 44, 82, 86, 91, 102, 108, 146, 151, 176, 187,201 and 226.
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS
Preface
Abbreviations
Acknowledgments
Synopsis of Contents
List of Illustrations
Select Bibliography
Errata
Introduction ... ... ••• 1
1. Materials for the study of Buddhist Iconography ; 2, Vajrayana Mysticism ; 3. The Psychic Process of Sadhana ; 4. Godhead in Buddhism ; 5. The Pantheon.
CHAPTER!. Dhyani and Mortal Buddhas ... ... 42
Vajradhara ; 1. Amitabha ; Pandara ; Padmapani ; 2. Aksobhya ; Mamaki ; Vajrapani ; 3. Vairocana ; Locana ; Samantabhadra ; 4* Amoghasiddhi ; Tara ; Visvapani ; 5. Ratnasambhava ; Vajradhatvlsvarl ; Ratna- pani ; 6. Vajrasattva ; Vajrasattvatmika ; Ghantapani ; Mortal Buddhas ; Vajrasana ; Durgatiparisodhana ; Mortal Buddhasaktis ; Mortal Bodhisattvas ; Maitreya.
CHAPTER II. The Bodhisattvas ... ... ... 82
1. Samantabhadra ; 2. Aksayamati ; 3. Ksiti- garbha ; 4. Akasagarbha ; 5, Gaganaganja ; 6. Ratna- . pani ; 7. Sagaramati ; 8. Vajragarbha ; 9V?walokitesvara ;/x 10. Mahasthamaprapta ; 11. Candraprabha ; 12. Jali- niprabha ; 13. Amitaprabha ; 14. Pratibhanakuta ; 15. Sarvasokatamonirghatamati ; 16. Sarvanivaranaviskambhi ; 17. Maitreya ; 18. Manjusri ) 19. Gandhahasti ; 20. Jna- naketu ; 21. Bhadrapala ; 22, Sarvapayanjaha ; 23, Amoghadarsi ; 24- Surangama ; 25. Vajrapaanii ( General remarks.
CHAPTER IIL Bodhisattva Manjusri ... ... 100
1. Vajraraga ; 2. Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara ; 3. Manju* ghosa ; 4. Siddhaikavlra ; 5. Vajrananga ; 6, Kama" sangiti Manjusri ; 7. Vagisvara ; 8. Manjuvara ; 9. Man- juvajra ; 10> Manjukumara ; 11. Arapacana ; 12. Sthira- cakra ; 13. Vadirat,
XVI
CHAPTER IV. Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara | ... ... 124
1. Sadaksari Lokesvara ; 2. Sirhhanada ; 3. Khasarpana;
4. Lokanatha ; 5. Halahala ; 6. Padmanarttesvara ; 7- Hari^ hariharivahana ; 8. Trailokyavasankara ; 9. Rakta-Lokes' vara ; 10. Mayajalakrama ; 11. Nilakantha ; 12. Sugati- sandarsana ; 13. Pretasantarpita ; 14. Sukhavati Lokes* vara ; 15. Vajradharma ; General.
CHAPTER V. Emanations of Amitabha - ... ... 145
I. Gods : ^
1. Mahabala ; 2. Saptasatika Hayagriva
II. Goddesses :
3. Kurukulla ; 4. Bhrkuti ; 5. Mahasitavatl CHAPTER VI. Emanations of Aksobhya ... ... 154
I. Gods :
1. Candarosana ; 2. Heruka ; 3. Hevajra ; 4. Buddha- /kapala ; 5. Sambara ; 6. Saptaksara ; 7. Mahamaya ; 8. Havamya ; 9 Raktayamah ; 10. Krsnayamari ; 11. Jam- bhala ; 12. Occhusma Jambhala ; 13. Vighnantaka ; 14. Vajrahuhkara ; 15. Bhutadamara ; 16. Vajrajjvalana- larka ; 17. Trailokyaviiava ; 18. Paramasva ; 19. Yogam- bara ; 20. Kalacakra.
CHAPTER VII. Emanations of Aksobhya (continued) ... 189
II. Goddesses :
1. Mahaclnatara ; 2. Janguli ; 3* Ekajata ; 4. Vidyu- jjvalakarall ; 5. Parnasabarl ; 6. ^Prajnaparamita ; 7. Vajra- carcika ; 8. Mahamantranusarini ; 97^/TanSpratyahgira ; 10. Dhvajagrakeyura ; 11. Vasudhkra ; 12. Nairatma ; 13. Jnanadakini ; 14. VajravidaranL
CHAPTER VIII. Emanations of Vairocana ... ... 206
I. Gods :
1. Namasahgiti
II. Goddesses ;
2. M and ; 3. Usnisavijaya ; 4. Sitatapatra Aparajita ;
5. MahasahasrapramardanI ; 6. Vajravarahl ; 7. Cunda ; 8. Grahamatrka.
CHAPTER IX. Emanations of Amoghasiddhi ... ... 226
I. Gods :
1 . Vajramrta
XVJI
II. Goddesses :
2. Khadiravam Tara ; 3. Mahasrl Tara ; 4. Vasya- tara ; 5. Sadbhuja Sitatara ; 6. Dhanada Tara ; 7. Sitatara 8. Parnasabari ; 9. Mahamayun ; 10. Vajrasrnkhala ; 11. Vajragandhari.
CHAPTER X. Emanations of Ratnasambhava ... ... 237
I. Gods : ^>^~
1. Jambhala ; 2. Ucchusma Jambhala
II. Goddesses : .s**
3. Vaipatara ; 4. Mahapratisara ; 5. Vasudhara ;
6. ApaJtfjita ; 7. Vajrayogim ; 8. Prasanna Tara CHAPTER XL Collective Deities ... ... ... 251
I. Ten Gods of Direction : ... ... ... 251
1. Yamantaka ; 2. Prajnantaka ; 3. Padmantaka ; 4. Vighnantaka ; 5. Takkiraja ; 6. Niladanda ; 7* Maha- bala ; 8. Acala ; 9. Usmsa ; 10. Sumbharaja.
II. Six Goddesses of Direction: ... ... 256
1. Vajrankusi ; 2. VajrapasI ; 3. Vajrasphota ; 4. Vajraghanta ; 5. Usmsavijaya ; 6. Sumbha.
III. Eight Usmsa Gods ; ... ... ... 299
1. Vajrosmsa ; 2. Ratnosmsa ; 3. Padmosmsa ; 4. Visvosmsa ; 5. Tejosmsa ; 6. Dhvajosmsa ; 7. Tik- snosmsa ; 8. Chhatrosmsa.
IV. Five Protectresses : ... ... ... 302
1. Mahapratisara ; 2. Mahasahasrapramardani ;
3. Mahamantranusarim ; 4. Maha$ItavatI ; 5. Maha* mayurL
V. Taras of Five Colour : ... ... ... 306
1. Green Tara ; 2. White Tara ; 3. Yellow Tara ;
4. Blue Tara; 5. Red Tara.
VI. Eight Gaurl Group : ... ... ... 309
1. Gaurl; 2. Cauri ; 3. Vetall ; 4. Ghasmarl ;
5. Pukkasi; 6. Saban ; 7. Candali ; 8. Dombi.
VII. Four Dance Deities : ... ... ... 312
1. Lasya ; 2.. Mala; 3. Gita ; 4. Nrtya.
VIIL Four Musical Instruments : ... .., 314
L Vaihsa ; 2. Vina; 3. Mukunda ; 4. Muraja.
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IX. Four Door Goddesses : ... ... ... 316
L Talika ; 2. KuncI ; 3. Kapata ; 4. Patadharinl
X. Four Light Goddesses : ... ... ... 317
1. Suryahasta ; 2. Dlpa ; 3. Ratnolka ; 4. Tadit- kara.
XL Four Animal-Faced Goddesses : ... ... 319
1. Hayasya ; 2. bukarasya ; 3. Svanasya ; 4. Sim- hasya.
XIL Four Dakim Group : ... ... . 321
1. Dakim ; 2. Lama ; 3. Khandaroha ; 4. Rupim.
CHAPTER XIL Philosophical Deities : ... 323
I. Twelve Paramitas : ... ... ... ... 323
1. Ratnaparamita ; 2. Danaparamita ; 3. cillapara- mita ; 4. Ksantiparamita ; 5. Viryaparamita ; 6. DKya- naparamita ; 7. Prajnaparamita ; 8 Upayaparamita ; 9. Pranidhanaparamita ; 10. Balaparamita ; 11. Jnana* paramita ; 12. Vajrakarmaparamita.
II. Twelve Vasita Goddesses : ... ... ... 328
1. Ayurvasita ; 2. Cittavasita ; 3. Pariskaravasita ; 4. Karma vasita ; 5. Upapattivasita ; 6. Rddhiva- sita ; 7. Adhimuktivasita ; 8. Pranidhana vasita ; 9. Jnanavasita ; 10. Dharmavasita ; 11. Tathatavasita ; 12, Buddhabodhiprabha-vasita.
III. Twelve Bhumis : ... ... ... 333
1. Adhimukticarya ; 2. Pramudita ; 3. Vimala ; 4* Prabhakan ; 5. Arcismatl ; 6. Sudurjaya ; 7. Abhi- mukhl ; 8. Durangama ; 9. Acala ; 10. Sadhu- mat! ; 11. Dharmamegha ; 12* Samantaprabha.
IV. Twelve Dharinls : ... ... ... 337
1. Sumati ; 2. Ratnolka ; 3. Usrnsavijaya ; 4» Marl ; 5. Parnasabarl ; 6. Jahgull ; 7. Ananta- mukhl ; 8 Cunda ; 9. Prajnavardhanl ; 10. Sarvakar- mavaranavisodhanl ; 11. Aksayajnanakaranda ; 12 Sarvabuddhadh armakosa vatL
V. Four Pratisamvits : ... ... ... 342
L Dharma Pratisamvit ; 2. Artha Pratisamvit ; 3. Nirukti Pratisamvit ; 4. Pratibhana Pratisamvit.
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: CHAPTER XIII. Hindu Gods in Vajrayana : ... ... 344
1. Mahakala ;
2. Ganapatl ;
3. Ganapatihrdaya ; 4 Sarasvatl ;
5. The Eight Dikpalas : ... ... 352
I Indra ; II. Yama ; III. Varuna ; IV. Kubera ;
V. Isana ; VI. Agni ; VII Nairrti ; VIII. Vayu
6. Ten Principal Hindu Deities : **r~ ... 363
^IT Brahma ; II. Visnu ; III. "Stahesvara ; IV.
Karttikeya ; V. Varahl ; VI. Camunda ; VII.
BhrngI; VIII. Ganapati ; IX MahSkala ; X. Nandikesvara.
7. Nine Planets: ... ... ... 367
I. Aditya; II. Candra ; III. Mangala ; IV. Budha; V. Brhaspati ; VI. Sukra ; VII. 3ani; VIII. Rahu ; IX. Ketu.
8. Balabhadra Group : ... ... ... 378
I. Balabhadra ; II. Jayakara ; III. Madhukara ;
IV7, Vasanta.
9. Lords of the Yaksas, Kinnaras, Gandharvas and Vidyadharas : ... ... ... ... 379
I. Yaksa Kings ; II. Kinnara King ; III. Gandharva King; IV. Vidyadhara King.
10. Twenty-Eight Constellations ... ... 381
11. Time Deities: ... ... ... 382
I. Months ; II. Dates ; III. Zodiacal Signs ;
IV. Seasons
CHAPTER XIV. Conclusion ... ... ..." 334
Apppendix. 108 Forms of Avalokitesvara ... ... 394
Glossary ... ... ... ... ... 432
Index of Words ... ... .„ ... 443
Index of Illustrations ... ... ... ... 457
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Names Page
1. Maya's Dream (Bharhut) . ... 33
2. BodhiTree (Sanchi) .. ... .. 33
3. Buddha's Head-dress (Bharhut) ... 36
4. Buddha's Footprints (Bharhut) ... ... 36
5. WheeLof-the-law (Bharhut) .. .. 36
6. Simbhu (Nepal) ... ... ... 37
7. Baudh (Nepal) ... .. ... 37
8. Kathe Simbhu (Nepal) . 37
9. Dharma (Nepal) ... ... , ... 40
10. Buddha (Nepal) ... ... ... 40
11. Sangha (Nepal) ... 40
12. Adibuddha Vajradhara (Nepal) ... ... 57
13. Vajradhara (Baroda Museum) ... ... 58
14. Vajradhara Yab^yum (Nepal) ... ... 58
15. Vajradhara Yab-yum (side view) . ... 58
16. Vajradhara (Baroda Museum) ... . 58
17. Buddha in different Mudras (Nalanda Museum) ... 59
18. Buddha in different Mudras (Java) ... ... 59
19. Amitabha (Nepalese miniature) .. ... 60
20. Pandara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 60
2L Padmapani (Nepal) ... . ... 60
22. Aksobhy a (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 60
23. Aksobhya (Nepal) ... ... ... 61
24. MamakI (Nepalese drawing) ... 61
25. Vajrapani (Nepal) ... ... ... 61
26. Vajrapani (Indian Museum) ... .. 62 2?. Vajrapani (Nalanda Museum) ... ... 62
28. Vairocana (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 62
29. Vairocana (Nepal) ... ... 62
30. Vairocana Vajradhatu (Peiping) .. ... 63
31. Locanl (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 63
32. Samantabhadra (Nepal) ... ... 63
33. Amoghasiddhi (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 64
34. Amoghasiddhi (Nepal) ... ... 64
XXI
Fig. Names ' Page
35. Tara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 64
36. Vilvapani (Nepal) ... ... ... 65
37. Ratnasambhava (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 65
38. Ratnsambhava (Nepal) ... ... 65
39. Vajradhatvisvari (Nepalese drawing) . ... 66
40. Ratnapani (Nepal) ... ••• ... 66
41. Vajrasattva (Nepal) .. ... 66
42. Vajrasattva (Baroda Museum) ... .- '67
43. Vajrasattva Yab-yum (Nepal) ... ... 67
44. Vajrasattva Yab-yum (side view) ... ... 67
45. Seven Mortal Buddhas with Maitreya (Indian
Museum) ... ... ... 68
46. Vajrasana (Indian Museum) ... .». 68 47* Maitreya (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 69
48. Samantabhadra (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 69
49. Aksayamati (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 69
50. Aksayamati (Peiping)... ... ... 70
51. Ksitigarbha (Nepalese drawing) .. ... 70
52. Akasagarbha (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 70
53. Gaganaganja (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 71
54. Ratnapani (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 71
55. Sagaramati (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 71
56. Vajragarbha (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 72
57. Avalokitesvara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 72
58. Mahasthamaprapta (Nepalese drawing) •• 72
59. Candraprabha (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 105
60. Jalinlprabha (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 105
61. Amitaprabha (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 105
62. Pratibhanakuta (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 106
63. Sarvasokatamonirghatamati (Nepalese drawing) ... 106
64. Sarvanivaranaviskambhi (Nepalese drawing) ... 106
65. Maitreya (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 107
66. Manjusr! (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 107
67. Gandhahasti (Nepelese drawing) ... ... 107
68. Jnanaketu (Nepalese drawing) ... '... l68
69. Bhadrapala (Nepalese drawing ... '... 108
70. Sarvapayanjaha (Nepalese drawing) ... ' ... '108
71. Sar vapiy an jaha (Peiping) ... .:. '109
72. Amoghadarsin (Nepalfese drawing) ... ' - !.-. i09 '73. Surangama (Nepalese drawing) ... ' ..: "J09
74. Manjusn with Ganapati and Vi^snu (Baroda Museum^:/ 1 10
XXII
Fig. Names Page
75. Vajraraga (Baroda Musem) ... ... 110
76. Vajraraga (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 110
77. Siddhaikavlra (Sarnath Museum) ... ... Ill
78. Vajrananga (Nepalese drawing) ... ... Ill
79. Namasanglti Manjusrl (Nepalese drawing) ... 111
80. Namasanglti Manjusrl (Peiping) ... ... 112
81. Vaglsvara (Indian Museum) ... ... 112
82. Vaglsvara (Nepal) ... ... ... 112
83. Manjuvara (Birbhum) ... ... ... 169
84* Manjuvara (Indian Museum) ... ... 169
85. Manjuvara (Indian Museum) .-. ... 169
86. Manjuvara (Nepal) ... ... ... 170
87. Manjuvajra (Baroda Museum) ... ... 170
88. Manjukumara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 170
89. Arapacana (Dacca Museum) ... ... 171
90. Arapacana (Berlin Museum) ... ... 172
9L Arapacana (Nepal) ... ... ... 172
92. Arapacana (Baroda Museum) ... .. 172
93. Sthiracakra (Vanglya Sahitya Parisat) ... ... 173
94- Sadaksari Group (Sarnath Museum) ... ... 173
95. Sadaksari Group (Indian Museum) ... ... 173
96. Sadaksari Group (Birbhum) ... ... 174
97. Sadaksari Lokesvara (Baroda Museum) ... 174
98. Sadaksari Mahavidya (Sarnath Museum) ... 174
99. Simhanada— Mahoba (Lucknow Musuem) ... 175
100. Simhanada (Nepal) ... ... ... 176
101. Simhanada (Magadha) ... ... 176
102. Simhanada (Nepal) ... ... ... 176
103. Khasarpana (Vikrampur, Dacca) ... ... 257
104. Khasarpana (Indian Musuem) ... ... 259
105. Lokanatha— Mahoba (Lucknow Museum) ... 258
106. Lokanatha (Baroda Museum) ... ... 259
107. Lokanatha (Sarnath Museum) ... ... 259
108. Lokanatha (Nepal) ... ... 260
109. Halahala (Nepal) ... ... ... 260
110. Padmanarttesvara (Nepal) ... ... 260
111. Padmanarttesvara (Peiping) ... ... 261
112. Padmanarttesvara (Nepalese drawing)... ... 261
113. Harihariharivahana (Nepalese drawing) ... 261
114. Trailokyavasahkara (Peiping) ... ... 262
115. Raktaiokesvara (Peiping) ... ... 262
XXIII
Fig. Names Page
116. Ntlakantha (Sarnath Museum) ... ... 262
117. Sugatisandarsana {Nepalese drawing) ... ... 263
118 Pretasantarpita (Nepalese drawing) ... 263
119. Sukhavati Lokesvara (Nepal) ... ... 263
120. Vajradharma (Nepalese drawing) .. ... 264
121. Kurukulla (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 264
122. Kurukula (Peiping) ... ... ... 264
123 BhrkutI (Peiping) ... ... ... 265
124. Gandarosana (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 265
125. Heruka (Dacca Museum) ... ... 265
126. Buddhakapala (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 266
127. Buddhakapala (Baroda Museum) ... ... 266
128. Hayagrlva (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 266
129. Hayagrlva (Peiping) ... ... ... 267
130. U cchus ma Jambhala (Sarnath Museum) ... 267
131. Vighnantaka (Baroda Museum) ... ... 267
132. Paramasva (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 268
133. Yogambara (Peiping) ... ... ... 263
134. Kalacakra (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 268
135. Mahaclna Tara (Nepalese drawing) ... - 269
136. Mahaclna Tara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 269
137. Jangul! (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 269
138 Ekajata (Indian Museum) ... ... 270
139. Ekajata (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 270
140. Parnasaban (Indian Museum) ... ... 270
141. Prajnaparamita (Leiden, Holland) ... ... 271
142. Prajnaparamita (Indian Museum) ... ... 271
143. Vajracarcika (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 271
144. Pratyangira (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 272
145. Pratyangira (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 272
146. Pratyafigira (Nepal) ... ... ... 272
147. Dhvajigrakeyura (Nepalese drawing)... ... 274
148. Nairatma (Indian Museum) ... 274
149. Nairatma (Vangiya Sahitya Parisat) ... ... 274
150. Vajravidaram (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 274
151. Namasahglti (Nepal) ... ... ... 276
152. Astabhuja MaricI (Indian Museum) ... ... 275
153. Astabhuja MaricI (Indian Museum) ... ... 276
154. Astbhuja MaricI (Lucknow Museum)... ... 276
155. Dasabhujasita MaricI (Nepalese drawing) ... 278
156. Usnlsavijaya -(Indian Museum) ... ... 277
XXIV
Fig* Names Page
157. Usmsavijaya (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 278
158. Sitatapatra Aparajita (Nepalese drawing) ... 278 J59. Vajravarahi (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 279
160. Vajravarahi (Baroda Museum) ... ... 279
161. Cunda (The late Mr. W. B. Whitney) ... 279 162* Cunda (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 280
163. Cunda (Baroda Museum) ... ... 280
164. Cunda (Bodh-Gaya) ... ... ... 280
165. Grahamatrka (Nepalese miniature) ... , ... 282
166. Khadiravam Tara — Mahoba (Lucknow Museum) ... 281
167. Khadiravam Tara (Indian Museum) ... ... 282
168. Khadiravam Tara (Baroda Museum) ... ... 282
169. Mahasri Tara (Indian Museum) ... ... 283
170. Vasyatara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 284
171. Sadbhuja Sitatara (Nepalese drawing)... ... 284
172. Dhanada Tara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 284
173. Parnasabarl (Vikrampur, Dacca) ... ... 285
174. Parnasabarl (Vikrampur, Dacca) ... .. 286
175. Vajrasrnkhala (Nepalese drawing) . ... 286
176. Jambhala (Nepal) ... .. ... 286
177. Jambhala (Vikrampur, Dacca) ... ... 287
178. Jambhala (Vikrampur, Dacca) ... ... 288
179. Jambhala Yab-yum (Nepalese drawing) ... 288
180. Vajratara (Indian Museum) ... ... 288
181. Vajratara (Orissa) ... ... ... 289
182. Vajratara (Nepal) ... ... ... 289
183. Puspatara Peiping ... ... ... 289
184. Mahapratisara (Dacca Sahitya Parisat) ... 290
185. Mahapratisara (Dacca Museum) ... ... 290
186. Vasudhara (Nepalese drawing) •• ... 290
187. Vasudhara (Nepal) ... ... ... 291
188. Vasudhara (Baroda Museum) ... ... 291
189. Aparajita (Nalanda Museum) ... ... 291
190. Aparajita (Indian Museum) ... ... 292
19L Vajrayogim (Temple at Sahku) ... ... 292
192. Prasannatara (Nepalese drawing) ... ... .292
193. Vajrapasi (Peiping) ... ... ... 293
194. Vajrasphota (Peiping)... ,.. ... 293
195. Vajrosnisa (Peiping) ... ... ... 293
196. Mahapratisara (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 294
197. Mahasahasrapramardam (Nepalese miniature) ... 294
XXV
Fig, Names Page
198. Mahamantranusarim (Nepalese miniature) ... 294
199. Mahasltavati (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 295
200. Mahamayuri (Nepalese miniature) ... ... 295
201. - Mahattarl Tara (Nepal) ... ... 295
202. Vetall (Peiping) ... ... 296
203. Ghasmarl (Peiping) ... ... 296
204. Pukkasi (Peiping) ... -• 296
205. Dombi (Peiping) ... ... 353
206. Lasya (Peiping) ... ... 353
207. Gita (Peiping) ... ... 353
208. Nrtya (Peiping) ... ... 354
209. Vina (Peiping) ... ... 354
210. Mukunda (Peiping) ... ... 354
211. Talika (Peiping) ... ... 355
212. Kapata (Peiping) .. ... 355
213. Dlpa (Peiping) ... ... 355
214. Ratnolka (Peiping) ... ... 356
215. Simhasya (Dr. Moghe's Collection) .. ... 356
216. Simhasya, upper view (Dr. Moghe's Collection) ... 356
217. DSkinl (Peiping) ... ... 357
218. Lama (Nepalese painting in colour) ... ... 376
219. Dhyana Paramita (Peiping) ... ... 357
220. Pnmidhana Paramita (Peiping) ... ... 357
221. Upapatti Vasita (Peiping) ... ... 358
222 Rddhi Vasita (Peiping) ... ... 358
223. Dharmamegha (Peiping) ... ... 358
224. Nirukti Pratisaifavit (Peiping) ... ... 359
225. Pratibhana Pratisarhvit (Peiping) .. ... 359
226. Mahakala (Nepal) ... ... 359
227. Ganapati (Dr. Moghe's Collection) ... ... 360
228. Ganapati (Maharani Chimanabai Collection) ... 360
229. Ganapatihrdaya (Nepalese miniature)... ... 360
230. Mahasarasvati (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 369
231. Vajravlna Sarasvatl (Peiping) ... ... 369
232. Vajrasarada (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 369
Z33. Vajrasarada (Nalanda Museum) ... ... 370
Z34. Arya'Sarasvatl (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 370
235. Vajrasarasvati (Nepalese drawing) ... ... 370
236. Indra (Peiping) ... ... 371
237- Agni (Peiping) ... ... 371
138. Vayu (Peiping) ... ... 371
XXVI
Fig. Names Page
239. Brahma (Peiping) ... ... 372
240. Mahesvara (Peiping) ... ... 372
241. Ganapati (Peiping) ... ... 372
242. Rahu (Peiping) ... ... 373
243. Ketu (Peiping) ... ... 373
244. Navami Tithi (Peiping) ... ... 373
245 Dasami Tithi (Peiping) ... ... 374
246. Tula (Peiping) ... ... 374
247. Kumbha (Peiping) ... ... 374
248. Mma (Peiping) ... ... 375
249. Khadiravam Tara (Dacca Museum) ... ... 375
APPENDIX
Eye-copy of paintings in the Machhandar Vahal, Kathmandu, Nepal
Fig. Names Page
1(A). Hayagriva Lokesvara ... ... 401
2(A). Mojaghanjabala (?) Lokesvara ... ... 401
3(A). Halahala Lokesvara ... ... 401
4(A). Harihariharivahana Lokesvara ... ... 401
5(A). Mayajalakrama Lokesvara ... ... 402
6(A). Sadaksan Lokesvara ... ... 402
7(A). Anandadi Lokesvara ... ... 402
8(A) Vasyadhikara Lokesvara ... ... 402
9(A). Potapada Lokesvara ... ... 403
10(A). Kamandalu Lokesvara ... ... 403
11(A). Varadayaka Lokesvara ... ... 403
12 (A). Jatamukuta Lokesvara ... ... 403
13(A). Sukhavati Lokesvara ... ... 404
14(A) Pretasantarpana Lokesvara ... ... 404
15(A). Mayajalakramakrodha Lokesvara ... ... 404
16(A). Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara ... ... 404
17(A), Nilakantha Lokesvara ... ... 405
18(A), Lokanatha-Raktaryyavalokitesvara ... 405
19(A), Trailokyasandarsana Lokesvara ... ... 405
20(A). Sirhhanatha Lokesvara ... ... 405
21 (A). Khasarpana Lokesvara ... ... 406
22(A). Manipadma Lokesvara ... ... 406
23(A). Vajradharma Lokesvara ... ... 406
24(A). Pupala (?) Lokesvara ... ... 406
25(A). Utnauti (?) Lokesvara ... ... 407
26(A)* Vrsnacana Lokesvara ... ... 407
27(A). Brahmadanda Lokesvara ... ... 407
28(A). Acata (?) Lokesvara ... ... 407
29(A). Mahavajrasattva Lokesvara ... .. 408
30(A), Visvahana Lokesvara ... ... 408
31(A). Sakyabuddha Lokesvara ... ... 408
32(A). Santasi Lokesvara ... ... 408
XXVIII
Fig. Names Page
33(A). Yamadanda Lokesvara ... ... 409
34(A). Vajrosmsa Lokesvara ... ... 409
35(A). Vajrahuntika (?) Lokesvara .. ... 409
36( A) . Jnanadhatu Lokesvara ... ... 409
37(A). Karandavyuha Lokesvara ... ... 410
38(A). Sarvanivaranaviskambhi Lokesvara ... 410
39(A). Sarvasokatamonirghata Lokesvara • ... 410
40(A). Pratibhanakuta Lokesvara ... ... 410
4l(A). Amrtaprabha Lokesvara ... ... 411
42(A). Jaliniprabha Lokesvara ... - ... 411
43(A). Candraprabha Lokesvara ... ... 411
44(A). Avalokita Lokesvara ... ... 411
45(A). Vajragarbha Lokesvara ... ... 412
46(A). Sagaramati Lokesvara ... ... 412
47(A). Ratnapani Lokesvara ... ... 412
48(A). Gaganaganja Lokesvara ... ... 412
49(A). Akasagarbha Lokesvara ... ... 413
50(A), Ksitigarbha Lokesvara ... ... 413
51 (A). Aksayamati Lokesvara ... ... 413
52(A). Srstikanta Lokesvara ... ... 413
53(A). Samantabhadra Lokesvara ... ... 414
54(A). Mahasahasrabhuja Lokesvara ... ... 414
55(A). Maharatnaklrti Lokesvara ... ... 414
56(A). Mahasankhanatha Lokesvara ... ... 414
57(A). Mahasahasrasuryya Lokesvara ... ... 415
58(A). Maharatnakula Lokesvara *.. ... 415
59(A). Mahapatala Lokesvara ... ... 415
60(AK Mahamanjudatta Lokesvara ... ... 415
61(A). Mahacandrabimba Lokesvara ... ... 416
62(A). Mahasuryyabimba Lokesvara ... ... 416
63(A). Maha-Abhayaphalada Lokesvara ... ... 416
64(A). Maha-Abhayakarl Lokesvara ... ... 416
65(A)* Mahamanjubhuta Lokesvara ... ... 417
66(A). Mahavisvasuddha Lokesvara ... ... 417
67(A). Mahavajradhatu Lokesvara ... ... 417
68(A). Mahavajradhrk Lokesvara ... ... 417
69(A). Mahavajrapani Lokesvara ... ... 418
70(A). Mahavajranatha Lokesvara ... ... 418
71(A). Amoghapasa Lokesvara ... ... 418
72(A). Devadevata Lokesvara ... ... 418
73(A). Pindapatra Lokesvara ... ... 419
XXIX
Fig. Names Page
74(A). Sat thavaha Lokesvara ... ... 419
75(A). Ratnadala Lokesvara ... ... 419
76(A). Visnupani Lokesvara ... ... 419
77(A). Kamalacandra Lokesvara ... ... 420
78(A). Vajrakhanda Lokesvara ... ... 420
79(A). Acalaketu Lokesvara ... ... 420
80(A). Sirisara(?) Lokesvara ... ... 420
8l(A). Dharmacakra Lokesvara .., ... 421
82(A). Harivahana Lokesvara ... ... 421
83(A). Sarasiri (?) Lokesvara ... ... 421
84(A). Harihara Lokesvara ... ... 421
85(A). Simhanada Lokesvara ... ... 422
86(A). Visvavajra Lokesvara ... ... 422
87(A). Amitabha Lokesvara ... ... 422
88(A). Vajrasattvadhatu Lokesvara ... ... 422
89(A). Visvabhuta Lokesvara ... ... 423
90(A). Dharmadhatu Lokesvara ... ... 423
91(A). Vajradhatu Lokesvara ... ... 423
92(A). Sakyabuddha Lokesvara ... ... 423
93(A). Cittadhatu Lokesvara ... ... 424
94(A). Cintamani Lokesvara ... ... 424
95^AK Santamati Lokesvara ... ... 424
96(A). Manjunatha Lokesvara ... ... 424
97(A). Visnucakra Lokesvara ... .. 425
98(AK Krtanjali Lokesvara ... ... 425
99(A). Visnukanta Lokesvara ... ... 425
100(A). Vajrasrsta Lokesvara ... ... 425
101(A). oankhanatha Lokesvara ... ... 426
102(A). Vidyapati Lokesvara ... ... 426
103(A). Nityanatha Lokesvara ... ... 426
104(A). Padmapani Lokesvara ... ... 426
105(A). Vajraparii Lokesvara ... ... 427
106(AK Mahasthamaprapta Lokesvara ... ... 427
107(A). Vajranatha Lokesvara ... ... 427
108(A). £nmad-Aryyavalokitesvara ... ... 427
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XXXI
Clark (Walter Eugene)— Two Lamaistic Pantheons, (TLP) 2 vols. in the Harvard Yenching Institute Monograph Series, Cambridge, Mass.
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XXXII Kern (H) — Manual of Indian Buddhism, Strassbourg, 1896
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XXXIII
Sastri (H, Krishna)— South Indian Images of Qods and Qoddesses, Madras, 1916,
Senart (E)— le Uahavastu, Vol. 3, part I, Paris, 1882.
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Vasu ( N, N. ) — The Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa, Calcutta, 1911.
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2. Introduction to D. R, Sahni's Sarnath Catalogue, See (Sahni, D R.).
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n. 3 |
jayote |
jayate |
|
15 |
23 |
willread |
will read |
|
17 |
3 |
inVajrayog:ni |
In Vajrayogini |
|
18 |
33 |
Siddhis |
Siddhis was |
|
18 |
34 |
In the |
The |
|
20 |
31 |
confees |
confess |
|
23 |
19 |
withe th |
with the |
|
26 |
15 |
lamp |
lump |
|
27 |
36 |
become |
becomes |
|
28 |
32 |
moniscience |
omniscience |
|
32 |
12 |
here in |
herein |
|
33 |
Fig. 2 |
Bodhi Tree |
Bodhi Tree |
|
(Amaravati) |
(Sanchi) |
||
|
43 |
3 |
Asia |
India |
|
63 |
Fig. 30 |
Vajradhatu |
Vajradhatu |
|
75 |
5 |
Yub-yum |
Yab-yum |
|
80 |
last |
has |
has this |
|
109 |
Fig. 71 |
Sarvapayanjaha |
Sarvapayanjaha |
|
(Peiping) |
|||
|
134 |
n. 1 |
Calrk |
Clark |
|
154 |
1 |
CHAPTER V |
CHAPTER VI |
|
181 |
15 |
Siva |
Siva |
|
185 |
9 |
Vahana |
Vahana — |
|
219 |
1 |
VASYA |
VAS"YA |
|
227 |
23 |
Companion |
Companions |
|
229 |
24 |
VASYATARA |
VASYATARA |
|
295 |
Fig. 199 |
Mahasitavatl |
Mahasitavati |
|
359 |
Fig. 226 |
Mahakala |
MahakSla |
|
(Peiping) |
(Nepal) |
||
|
400 |
15 |
Mahapatala |
Mahapatala |
|
415 |
Fig. 59 (A) |
Mahapatala |
Mahapatala |
|
429 |
37 |
88. Vrjrasattvadhatu |
88. Vajrasattvadhatu |
Introduction
1. Materials for the study of Buddhist Iconography.
All the three great religious systems of India, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism developed well-filled pantheons, and it is not always easy to decide to which of these three systems a particular image should be assigned. The importance of the study of iconography, which prima* rily concerns itself with the proper recognition of images thus becomes apparent.
The difficulties of the investigator are increased by the fact that a free and frequent interchange of deities took place among the three religious systems. Such Hindu deities as Parvatl, Indra, LaksmI, Sarasvatl are to be found among the Jaina.s. The Hindus, on the other hand, have borrowed goddesses like Mahaclnatara, Jangull, Vajrayogini from the Buddhist pantheon and incorporated them into their own under the names of Tara, Manasa and Chinnamasta respectively. Thus there is evidence that a free interchange of deities actually took place at the verv outset of Buddhism and Jainism as in the more promiscuous Tantru age. The Jainas and the Buddhists alike borrowed Hindu gods in their earlier stages, but in the Tantric age Buddhist gods were commonly exploited.
The problem of correct identification of images, therefore, presents a real difficulty which ureat scholars have more than once attempted to solve. Scholars of all countries, notably Waddell, Grunwedel, Foucher, Burgess, Getty, Coomiraswamy, Bhattasali, Rakhaldas Banerji and many others, have written useful and authoritative works, and collected together a considerable amount of information on Buddhist iconography. It is unfortunate, however, that the pantheon of the Indian Vajrayanists who were mainly responsible in building it up has so far been more or less neglected Getty and Deniker's 'Qods of Northern Buddhism9, although a masterpiece, deals only with Tibetan, Chinese and Japane.se gods but the purely Indian gods seem to have attracted little notice from them. It was Professor Foucher who by the publi* cation of his 'Eludes sur /' loniogrciphi? Bouddhique de L' Inde* in two parts published as early as 1900 and 1905, first drew the attention of scholars to this rich field of research. His curiosity was roused by a stuoy of the miniatures appearing on such Buddhist manuscripts as the Prajnaparamita, and then he made a systematic attempt to identify the sculptures. For the purpose of recognising images he hunted out a
2 INTRODUCTION
number of Sadhanas from the manuscripts of Sadhanamala, and he was surprised to find that the images tallied most remarkably with the descriptions given in the unpublished text of the Tantric manuscript. Again, the images and sculptures supplied interesting details such as were not available in the Sadhana. Thus the Sadhana and the image mutually enlightened each other. Professor Foucher's second volume embodies a critical, although partial, study of the Sadhanamala and it was this book that first emphasized the necessity of referring to a Sadhana in order to make or justify any single identification of a Buddhist image. When the present author was studying at the feet of the illus- trious savant, Professor Foucher, at the Indian Museum, Calcutta, he was advised to edit and study the different recensions of the Sadhanamala before proceeding with the delicate art of identification of Buddhist deities.
j The Sadhanamala is thus the most valuable_jm^i^ Buddhist iconograph^aot only because it records the latest advances in psychic research of the Vajrayana Buddhists, but also because it was a product of a period when Buddhism was about to be destroyed in Bengal due to Mussalman invasion. This standard work on Buddhist iconography has been published in two volumes as Nos. 26 and 41 of the Qaekwad's Oriental Series with an elaborate introduction dealing with the text and the various problems raised therein. The edition of the Sadhanamala comprises^ 3 1 2
^
contains^d£scrij>tions of i^umerQus_Buddhist deities* All new Sadhanas found in a different collection called the Sadhanasamuccaya have been carefully incorporated in their appropriate places in the present edition, which may very well represent a Vade Mecum of the Sadhana literature of the Buddhists. The Sadhanamalanot only gives valuable details regarding the deities, b^^jJtud^ historical
perio4r the Tantric philosophy,
and its psychic exercises, and on authors, Siddhas, Mantras, Mandalas,and magic as prevalent among the Buddhists. The special .form of Buddhism which developed in the Tantric period is called the Vajrayana, and the Sadhanamala throws a great deal of light on this obscure path of Bud- dhism which was current in India from the 7th to the 13th century A.D. TKe Sadhanamala does not however exhaust the material for the study of Indian Buddhist Iconography, One of the Sadhanamala Mss. is dated ir the Newari Era 285 corresponding to A.D. 1165, and there- fore, this work is not expected to record all the developments that took place after 1165 A. D. Many of the later developments are found incorporated in the work entitled the Dharmakosasangraha^ of Amrtananda who was the Residency Pandit when B. Hodgson was the
INTRODUCTION 3
Resident of Nepal. A manuscript of this work is preserved in the Durbar Library of Nepal, and there is also a copy of the original, preserved in the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in the Government Collection. Amrtananda's work is not published.
Besides Amrtananda's work there are others more ancient and capable of supplying much iconographic material. One such work is the Nispannayogavali of Mahapandita Abhayakara Gupta of the Vikrama- stla monastery who flourished during the reign of the Pala King Rama- pafa ( A.D. 1084-1130 ). This valuable work is now published in the Qaekwad's Oriental Series as No. 109 with an elaborate introduction and a full summary of its contents
The Nispannayogavali is a work on Mandalas and is remarkable for its richness of information and brevity. It contains in all 26 Mandalas in twenty-six chapters, some short, some long. All these Mandalas describe innumerable deities of the Tantra cult. A large number pf these descriptions is absolutely original, Tiighly interesting and informa- tive. Many of the names and forms which were altogether lost, are published here for the first time. Many of the deities described accurately in the work are not to be found anywhere in printed literature. The Nispannayogavali thus presents a unique, original, useful and most valuable information which constitutes our most authentic material for the study of the images and deities belonging to the Buddhist pantheon. Nispannayogavali outbeats Sadhanamala since the material presented here is more varied, more extensive and more prolific.
What service this Nispannayogavali can render to Buddhism may be illustrated by a reference to the several hundreds of images of Buddhist deities discovered in the Forbidden City of Peiping in Manchuiia. In July 1926 Stael Holstem the Russian archaeologist received permission to visit a number of Lama temples situated in Peiping which seem to have been neglected for a long time. In the upper storey of one of these temples he found a collection of bronze statuettes constituting a Lamaist Pantheon which had consisted originally of 787 figures. These figures along wuh a series of photographs from three manuscripts written in Chinese were studied "by the famous American Professor Walter Eugene Clark, Wales Professor of Sanskrit in the Harvard University, and he published this rich material in two sumptuous volumes, entitled, the Two Lamai&ic Pantheons in the Harvard Yenching Institute Monograph Series in the year 1937. The first volume contains an introduction, bibliography and indexes of deities in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese. The second volume contains illustrations of innumerable deities.
4 INTRODUCTION
These illustrations are of the utmost importance for the study of the Buddhist pantheon not only of China but also of India, Nepal and Tibet. The original images bear inscriptions in Chinese and sometimes in Tibetan and other languages, and the learned editor took great pains in restoring their original Sanskrit names. A large number of these names derived from Chinese sources is found in the Nispannayogavall with their full iconographic descriptions. Thus the Nispannayogavall provides the much needed descriptive texts which served as a basis for the artists to prepare the statuettes found in China. Since this book Nispannayogavall gives full iconographic descriptions of most of these deities it is not unreasonable to suppose that the Nispannayogavall formed at least one of the originals from which the artists obtained the correct idea of the form of the numerous deities represented in the statuettes. Otherwise it is difficult to conceive how form can be given to such obscure deities as the Sixteen Boddhisattvas, the Twelve Para- mitas, the Twelve Vasitas, the Twelve Bhumis, the Four Pratisamvits, etc. which are described accurately in the Manjuvajra Mandala of the Nispannayogavall. It is simply imposible to prepare images of these deities without the help of descriptions as given by Abhayakaragupta. The volume of information given in the Nispannayogavall of Abhayakara- gupta is so great that an independent book is required to deal with them exhaustively.
Besides the above mentioned Nispannayogavall, there are numerous Tantric texts which furnish considerable material for the study of Buddhist iconography of the Tantric period with which this work primarily concerns itself. Some of the more important materials can be found in the original Tantra works such as the Heruka and the Hevajra Tantras, Candamaharosana Tantra, Vajravarahi Tantra, Kriyasamuccaya, Vajravali nama Mandalopayika, Yoginijala Tantra Abhidhanottra Tantra and many others The list of such original Tantras furnishing valuable information on Buddhist deities can by no means be exhausted. The works above mentioned are all unpublished, and their handwritten copies can be found in the manuscript libraries such as the Durbar Library, Nepal; Asiatic Society's Library, Bengal; University Library, Cambridge; Musee Guimet, Paris; and the Russian Academy of Sciences in Leningrad. Numerous such manuscripts are also to be found in the hundreds of Buddhist monasteries of Nepal at Kathmandu, Pattan and Bhatgaon. Thus there is still an inexhaustive field for research and original work in Buddhist iconography alone It is a pity that these valuable and original source books of Buddhism should remain unpublished in this country, and sooner attention is drawn to this field of work, the better it will be for the history of our
INTRODUCTION 5
cultural past. It is a matter of deep regret that even tx>day there are lakhs of handwritten manuscripts in India in private houses, and no effort is being made to collect or preserve them. Thus these valuable source books of Indian history and culture are allowed to perish in India. Sanskrit being the most important member of the Indo-European family of languages is world property to-day, and it is the duty of every scholar in the world to see that this precious heritage is not allowed to be dissipated in an irresponsible manner.
There is another class of manuscripts which bears miniatures and paintings of Buddhist gods and goddesses. The different recensions of the Prajnaparamita and Pancaraksa bear miniature paintings on them. Illuminated manuscripts of the Karandavyuha and Bodhicaryavatara are also not unknown. The Pancaraksa manuscripts are to be found almost in every Buddhist house in Nepal, they bear different sets of miniatures, and are calculated to serve many household purposes. Holy books are illuminated with miniatures in order that they may be treated with respect by others, and in order that their sanctity may be increased and preserved.
By far the most important material for .the study of Buddhist iconography is represented by sculptures, bronzes, metal images and miniatures. The earlier phases of Buddhism are more or less free from the. representations of gods and goddesses. But scenes from Buddha's life, and Jataka stories were given preference in the earlier Buddhism. Such scenes and stories are found represented in stone at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and also in the Gandhara school. According to Professor Foucher the first image of the Buddha was fashioned in the Gandhara school of art.(*) Sculptures of Bodhisattvas and Hindu gods are not rare in this school. The sculpture remains at Amaravati are contemporaneous with those of the Gandhara school. The Mathura school followed closely and then came the sculptures of Sarnath, Magadha, Bengal, Orissa, Java and Nepal in the Tantric age. The paintings at Ajanta begin from the first century A.D. and the sculptures of Ellora and many other places, Buddhist cave temples of Southern and Northern India show the influence of immature Tantra on them. Sculptures produced in the earlier schools have received ample atten- tion of great scholars, but images belonging to the Tantric and post- Tantric periods and profoundly influenced by the Tantras have not been so fortunate. The excavations at Sarnath, Nalanda, Kurkihar have brought to light a large number of images of Buddhist gods and goddesses belonging to the Tantra school, and it may be reasonably expected that the old strongholds of Tantric learning such as Odanta-
(1) Foucher : Beginnings of Buddhist Art and other essays, p. 1 17.
6 INTRODUCTION
puri, Vikramaslla, Nalanda, Sarnath and Jagaddala monasteries will prove no less fruitful in this respect. The museums of Eastern India such as Sarnath, Patna, Calcutta, Dacca, Rajshahi, Mayurbhanj, Khiching and few others contain numerous metal images and sculptures belonging to the Tantric cult. That Bengal in the pre-Muhammadan period was practically Buddhist is made obvious by the fact that the worship of Dharma and Manjughosa still prevails there, and that nu- merous Buddhist sculptures are, being constantly discovered throughout the length and breadth of the province. It is needless to add that the Buddhist images discovered in Bengal, Bihar and Assam are mostly the product of the Tantric school of the Buddhists.
The wealth of sculptural and bronze remains in Nepal has not yet received the attention it deserved. Nepal is the only country which abounds in rich material for the study of Buddhist iconography, and in Nepal Buddhism can be studied as a living religion. Some of the Buddhist monasteries at Pattan are so rich in images that they can be said to constitute small museums by themselves. The stupa of Bodh- nath alone contains no less than a hundred and eight sculptures execut- ed in a neat manner. Occasional images of Guru Padmasambhava in the peculiar Tibetan technique and costume bespeak the Tibetan character of the temple. Forty-seven images in this famous temple are represented in Yab-yum and the rest are single. About ten of th<» single images depict the Siddhas of Tibet such as Mila-ras-pa, Mar-pa, Padmasambhava, Naro-pa and others. Although Tibetan in character the temple contains nevertheless some of the purely Indian gods of the Vajrayana pantheon, such as Sadaksarl Lokesvara, Vak, Heruka, Yamantaka and a few others. An old Tibetan tradition declares that in the matter of art Bengal comes first, Nepal second while the Tibetan and Chinese are the worst.
At Simbhu in Nepal one can witness the grandeur of an excellent Buddhist museum where the finest specimens of Buddhist sculptures are preserved round about the Stupa itself and in the surroundings. At the Maccharidar Vahal or the temple of Matsyendranatha the great Natha Yogin, there can be found 108 different forms of Avalokitesvara painted on a running panel in colour.1 Images and forms of deities that are not available in India are to be found in plenty in the Buddhist monasteries in Nepal. Anywhere in Nepal round a central stupa tiers of small chapels rising from the ground to the top are found to contain first class artistic specimens of Buddhist gods and goddesses. In monasteries which are run by courteous and learned Tantric monks one can find quite a number of images, sculptures, bronzes, paintings
(1) These 108 forms tre illustrated in the Appendix at the end of this volume
INTRODUCTION 7
and illuminated manuscripts. It is possible to have an idea of the enormous wealth of cultural remains in Nepal, when it is remembered that the number of monasteries at Kathmandu alone exceeds five hundred.
In Nepal, interesting material for the study of Buddhist iconography is obtained from an entirely unexpected quarter. There is a class of people called the Citrakaras or professional artists. They are so proficient in their art that they can produce an excellent drawing of any Buddhist deity in a few minutes. These artists seem to have a phenomenal memory with regard to the iconographic details such as the number of faces and hands, the pose, the symbols, the weapons and the parental Dhyani Buddha. They prepare such drawings in the presence of the customer without ever referring to a book or painted specimen, although at home they keep albums full of drawings in black and white and paintings in colour all relating to Buddhist deities. The specimens obtained from a gifted Citrakara named Virman are repro- duced in the body of the book in large numbers. All line drawings, barring the twenty- four Bodhisattvas, reproduced in this volume are from his drawings in black and white.
The above is a short survey of materials of different kinds that are available to the student of Buddhist iconography. It may be noticed that the images, sculptures, bronzes, drawings, miniatures, and the gods and goddesses represented by these, together with the literature explaining them, all belong to the Tantric mode of thought and culture. They are brought together under the comprehensive term of Vajrayana or the "Adamantine Vehicle". It leads therefore to a con- sideration of that form of Budhhism which is well known as Vajrayana,
8 INTRODUCTION
2. Vajrayana Mysticism.
Both the Hindus and the Buddhists were alike prolific writers on the Tantras and the literature extant on them is wonderfully extensive. One of the reasons why the word Tantra cannot be defined is that the Tantra comprises an astounding number of subjects along with its own numerous sub-divisions. Whatever was best, whatever was ennobling and whatever was beautiful in India were all incorporated in the Tantra. Tantric literature contributes a great deal to such sciences as astronomy, astrology, medicine, alchemy, chiromancy, horoscopy, divi^ nation, prognosis, Yoga and Hathayoga. The Tantra is an admixture of religion, philosophy, science, superstition, dogmas, psychic exercises and mysticism. In this wonderful literature is locked up much of the cultural history of India, and when this literature is intensively studied, it will reveal a great deal of India's past history and culture, particularly for the period between the 7th century A. D. right upto the Muham- madan conquest. It may here be mentioned that the Tantras, inspite of all their faults, are peculiarly Indian and represent India's contribu^ tion to world culture. A literature of this kind is not found in the history and civilization of any other country in the world.
To understand the rise of Vajrayana it is necessary to go back to the original teachings of the Buddha. Lord Buddha prescribed Yanas in the beginning, namely, the Sravakayana ancL the buddhayana. The Srtvakas were to near IFom a Buddha but they had to wait till the advent of another Buddha for their emancipation. In the meanwhile the Sravakas could teach, but they could neither attain Nirvana themselves nor help others to attain it. The Pratyekas were eminent men ; they could attain Nirvana by their own efforts, without the help of a Buddha but they could not impart Nirvana to others.
Buddhism continued in this state till the rise of the Mahayana pro- perly called, the Bodhisattvayana.\ The Mahay anists dismissed the previous Yanas with the contemptuous epithet of Hinayana. They claimed that they could not only attain Nirvana, nay even Buddhahood, with their own unaided efforts, but could also help others to attain these ideals. The distinction between Mahayana and Hinayana is graphically described in the earliest work, the Mahay anasutralankara, attributed to the famous Buddhist sage Asahga.
Thus there were three Yanas in Buddhism about 300 A. D. which may approximatelv be taken as the time of Asahga. But against these three Yanas there were four schools of philosophy in Buddhism, namely, the Sarvastivada (Sautrantika), the Vahyarthabhaiiga (Vai* bhasika), the Vijnanavada (Yogacara), and therSunyavada (Madhya-
INTRODUCTION 9
maka). How these four systems of philosophy were distributed amongst the three Yanas is one of the vital questions of Buddhism. The Tattvaratna vail of Advayavajra (12th century A. D.) answers this question in a praiseworthy manner. According to this authority "Three are the Yanas, Sravakayana, Pratyekayana and Mahayana. There are four theories; Vaibhasika, Sautrantika, Yogacara and Madhyamaka. Sravakayana and Pratyekayana are explained by the theories of the Vaibhasikas. Mahayana is of two kinds : Paramitanaya and Mantranaya. Paramitanaya is explained by the theories either of Sautrantika, Yogacara or Madhyamaka. Mantranaya is explained by the theories of Yogacara and Madhyamaka only". l
Thus^ Mantranayacomilieuges with the most abstruse theories of Sunyavada and Vijnanavada. Advayavajra in one place says, — "Mant- ranaya is very abstruse. It concerns men who seek emancipation by deep and solemn methods. It is also very extensive owing to the understanding of such theories as the four symbolic representations. Therefore, the author is not fit to explain it". - Advayavajra cites for his authority a statement which says that the Mantrasastra trans- cends all other Sastras, because though the Sastras have the same common object there is no fear of ignorance here. The means are many and the end not difficult of attainment by men whose senses are sharpened to the highest degree. Advayavajra in his Sekanirnaya accepts the Mahasukha theorv, dilates upon the various stages of the Mahasukha which according to him is not possible of attainment with- out the Sakti the embodiment of Karuna. :?
It is hardly necessary now to state that the Buddhism of the Lord Buddha found entirely different expressions as time passed from century to century, so much so, that even if Buddha is reborn, he will not be able to recognize Vajrayana or the Buddhist Tantra as his own handi* craft. Though the Buddha was antagonistic to all sorts of sacrifices, sorcery, necromancy or magic, he nevertheless is credited by some later authorities with having given instructions on Madras, Mandalas, Yoga and Tantra, so that prosperity in this world could be attained by his less advanced disciples who seemed to care more for this world than for the Nirvana preached by him. * India in Buddha's time w^s such that any religion which dared forbid all kinds of magical practices, could hardly be popular. A clever organiser as the Buddha was, he did not fail to notice the importance of incorporating magical practices in his religion to make it popular from all points of view. The Tantras and
1. Adv. p. 14 2. Adv. p. 21 3. Adv. p. 28 4. Tattvasangraha of santaraksita "Taduktamantrayogadiniyamad Vidhivat Krtat. Prajnarogyavibhutvadidrstadharmo- pi jayote. Sloka 3487
10 INTRODUCTION
Mantras were all there in the time of the Buddha, but unfortunately, we do not possess any connected account of them except a few works on the Dharanis in which the Chinese were interested in the beginning of the Christian era. These Dharanis are only unmeaning strings of words which are said to confer great merit when mutterred repeatedly for a number of times. Then comes the worship of Buddha in the Prajna- paramita with all the paraphernalia of worship such as are found in the Tantras. Then follow the different recensions of the Prajnaparamita, its sutra, hrdayasutra, its Dharam and Mantra the recitation of all of which confers the benefit of reading the whole of the Prajnaparamita scripture. This is a very old work and was translated into Chinese in the second century. A. D. The Manjusrimulakalpa appears to be a pro- duct of the same period and is full of deities, mudras, mandalas and Tantric practices, which became systematized in the Guhyasamaja Tantra in circa 300 A. D.
The Buddhist Tantras belong undoubtedly to Mahayana although it is quite possible to infer the presence of magical practices amongst the followers of the early Buddhism. l The Tantras were a development of the Yogacara which was inspired by the Sunyavada of the Madhya- makas. Vajrayana marks a step in advance even of the Yogacara thought.
The Mahayana in the opinion of the Vajrayanists is coextensive with what they called Dharma which they considered as eternal and to which was given a more important place in later Buddhism, than was assigned to the Buddha himself. The Vajrayanists refer to Sunya in all their writings, but this is not the Sunya of the Madhyamakas about which neither existence nor non-existence nor a combination of the two nor a negation of the two can be predicatedj To the Madhyamakas both the subject and the object are Sunya in essence ; there is no reality either of the mind or of the external world. Obviously, this is a position which was not agreeable to the Vajrayanists because to them a positive aspect in the Sunya is absolutely necessary. The Yogacara or the Vijnanavada goes a little further and the view of Vijnanavada as formulated by the school is that when emancipation is obtained it does not become Sunya, but turn into eternal consciousness. Vajrayana, on the other hand, 'is characterized as the 'Path which leads to perfect enlightenment* or what they call in Sanskrit 'Ar&ttara Samyak Sambodhi'. Vajrayana literally means the adamantine path or vehicle, but its technical meaning is the 'Sunya Vehicle' where £unya is used in a special sense to represent Vajra. It is said, —
L Bhattacharyya : Buddhist Esoterism, p. 24
INTRODUCTION 11
"Sunyata is designated as Vajra because it is firm and sound, and cannot be changed, cannot be pierced, cannot be penetrated, cannot be burnt and cannot be destroyed". *
The Mahayanists differ from the Hmayanists who are keen on obtaining liberation for themselves by their own efforts. The Mahayanists, on the other hand, do not care for their own salvation.. They are more solicitous about the deliverance of their fellow creatures/ than about their own. Their compassion for the sufferings of others actuates them to renounce their comforts, merits and even their right to salvation. The ideal of a Mahayanist finds expression in the Karandavyuha where the ideal Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is represented as refusing his well earned Nirvana until all beings of the world were in possession of the Bodhi knowledge and obtained freedom from worldly miseries. -
This then may be considered to be the goal of every Bodhisattva, which can be reached by following the tenets either of Sunyavada or of Vijnanavada. The Madhyamaka theory postulated a transcendental state but the Yogacara added the element of Vijriana 'consciousness' to Sunya. The Bodhi mind is a chain of Vijnana which is changing every moment, the Vijnana of the previous moment giving rise to the Vijriana of the succeeding moment with the same memory the same conformations and same qualities, and this process goes on till Vijnana attains liberation.
Now, this is the sort of emancipation to which the Vijnanavadins led their followers. In this Nirvana, as is already pointed out, there are two elements, Sunya and Vijnana. The Vajrayana which is a direct outcome of the Yogacara school introduced a new element or the element of Mahasukha 'eternal bliss' to their conception of liberation. The evolution of Buddhism became complete and found full expression in Vajrayana.
Vajrayana introduced many innovations of a revolutionary character. It introduced, for instance, the theory of the five Dhyani Buddhas as embodiments of the five Skandhas or cosmic elements and formulated the theory of the Kulas or families of the five Dhyani Buddhas from which deities emerge according to need. It introduced the worship of the Prajna or Sakti in Buddhism for the first time, and a host of other things including a large number of gods and goddesses, their Sadhanas
1. Adv. p. 23 2. Karandavyuha, ed. Sama£rami, pp. 21-22
12 INTRODUCTION
for the purpose of visualisation, Mantras, Tantras, Yantras, Mudras, Mandates, mystic realizations and psychic exercises of the most subtle character.
It is not possible to trace the origin of Vajrayana without referring to the Tibetan authorities and ancient Tantric authors Taranath is reported to have said l that Tantrism existed from very early times and was transmitted in a secret manner from the time of Asanga down to the time of Dharmaklrti. Asanga who was a brother ofVasubandhu (280-360 A, D.) must have flourished circa 300 A. D. and Dharmaklrti who is not mentioned by the Chinese traveller Hiuen Thsang but is referred to with great respect by I-Tsing very probably belonged to a period between 625-675 A. D. Thus it can be seen that during a long period of nearly three hundred years Tantrism was handed down from Gurus to disciples in an occult manner, before its followers could be numerically strong enough to preach their secret doctrines in public. It seems, therefore, reasonable that the Mahasiddhas such as Saraha, Nagarjuna, Luipa, Padmavajra, Anahgavajra, Indrabhuti and the rest who were masters of Tantra and were great authors and magicians, were the chief agents to boldly and publicly preach their doctrines and exhort people to follow their tenets, doctrines and practices. Their endeavours combined with their unique personal achievements must have converted a considerable number of people to Vajrayana faith.
It is rather difficult to point out the source of information from which Taranath drew his inspiration, but a perusal of such Tantric works as the Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra and the Jnanasiddhi of Indra- bhuti makes it possible to infer that it was the Guhyasamaja which was regarded as the most ancient and the most authoritative work of the Tantra school. Padmavajra not only advocates the cause of Tantric Buddhism but also gives a succinct digest of the work which he calls Sri-Samaja or the 'Venerable Samaja' in his treatise which is still unpub- lished. Indrabhuti in his Jnanasiddhi acknowledges the Guhyasamaja as the work of highest authority, and gives a summary of some chap- ters and the topics dealt with in this work. There is thus hardly any doubt that the Guhyasamaja is the original Sahglti which introduced for the first time the tenets of Vajrayana into Buddhism. It is believed to have been introduced in an Assembly of the Faithful by Lord Buddha who is here called Sarva-Tathagata-Kaya-Vak-Citta. The Guhyasamaja is written in the form of a Sangiti and is considered highly authoritative even now amongst the Vajrayanists, and is regarded as one of the Nine Dharmas of Nepal. This is evidently the first work of Vajrayana, and
1. Kern: Manual of Buddhism, p. 133
INTRODUCTION 13
Asahga quite conceivably may have had something to do with it, as it is commonly believed that the Tantras were introduced by Asahga after being initiated by Maitreya the Coming Buddha in the mysteries of Tantra in the Tusita heaven. l
It cannot be denied that in the very beginnings of Buddhism and even when Mahayana sprang up in later times a very strict discipline was enjoined on the followers of the faith. On the monks the rules were very strictly put into operation. For instance, they must not have any- thing to do with women, must not take any forbidden food. Wine, flesh, fish, appetisers and such objects of enjoyment were specially forbidden. The rules were indeed good and were very attractive in the time of the Buddha. But it is wholly absurd to expect obedience to such strict disciplinary measures from all members of the Sahgha even in the Buddha's life-time, if not for centuries after his disappearance. And after all, what will be the result ? Freedom from births and rebirths was only a possibility, and success at best was only questionable ! The members of the Sahgha must have revolted from time to time against the unnatural rules of discipline imposed on them, and party quarrels were already in evidence in the Second Great Council when the Mahasahghikas were expelled from the Orthodox church by the Sthaviras or Elders, because the latter were unwilling to make any concession on the ten minor points of discipline. Rebellion against the rules on broader and more important matters of discipline must have been in existence amongst the monks but they could not create a party of their own which could sufficiently withstand the criticisms of the orthodox section which was sure to go against them and denounce them as heretics. Those monks who saw salvation only in leading a natural life went on devising plans to modify their faith according to their light, probably by writing what is called the original Tantras which were secretly handed down through trusted disciples who could practice their secret rites without let or hindrance. These Tantras are in the form of Sahgltis and are said to have been delivered by the Buddha in an Assembly of the Faithful. It is in this Sahgiti form that all new ideas were introduced into Buddhism and the Sahgltis were very powerful agencies in the introduction of innovations, because Buddhism will not be prepared to accept anything as true unless spoken by the Buddha in a public assembly.
The orthodox followers of the faith were sure to challenge anything that had not been sponsored by the Buddha, and that seems to be the
1* For further information refer to introduction to Guhyasamaja published in the Qaekwad's Oriental Series, (GOS).
14 INTRODUCTION
reason of the great popularity of the Sahglti literature. The original Tantras of Buddhism are written in the Safiglti form wherein are in- culcated doctrines which are diametrically opposed to the original teachings of the Buddha. Easy methods leading to happiness in this world were held out in this literature, easy paths leading to salvation were shown ; great parade was made of the merits accruing from the repetitions of the Mantras, Dharams, panegyrics and worship of gods and goddesses. But everywhere any casual reader can detect a desire on the part of the authors to thwart all unnatural rules and regulations imposed on the followers. These disciplinary regulations, as a conse- quence gradually slackened down one after another, and ultimately when the Vajrayanists gained in power the secret doctrines no longer remained secret, but were openly preached and practised to the great annoyance of the orthodoxy.
In order to increase the popularity of Vajrayana the followers inclu- ded in it every conceivable tenets, dogmas, rites and practices that were calculated to attract more adherents. Thus the leading tenets of Mantrayana along with Mantras, Mandalas, Mudras, gods and god- desses were included in Vajrayana. The earliest work of this class is said to be the Vidyadharapitaka which has been characterised by Hiuen Thsang as belonging to the canonical literature of the Mahasanghikas. But this work is not available in original Sanskrit, and it is not possible to say anything with regard to the contents of the text. But with regard to another work the Manjusrimulakalpa the circumstances are different. This extensive work is published in the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series in three volumes. The text forms a part of the ancient Vaipulyasutras of Mahayana and is decidedly the earliest work of Mantrayana at present available. It is written in the Sangiti style in prose and in verse, and in an archaic style closely resembling the Gatha style, and is written throughout in what is called the Mixed Sanskrit. This work must have been very popular even after the destruction of Buddhism in India as will be evident from the fact that the book was copied only about four hundred years back in a monastery of South India by Ravicandra the head of the Mulaghosa Vihara. 1 The Manjusrimulakalpa deals with the formulae and practices which lead both to meterial prosperity and spiritual regeneration, and belongs to the early centuries A. D. but decidedly after the time of the composition of the Amitayus Sutra or the Sukhavati Vyuha which ushered in the conception of Amitabha and Avalokitesvara for the first time in Mahayana. The Amitayus Sutra was first translated into Chinese in a period between A. D. 148-170, and hence the time of its composition may be fixed at about 100 A. D. 2
1. See introduction to the Manjulrlmulakalpa by the editor, Ganapati Shastri.
2. Sukhavativyuha, p p. 1, 28, 32
INTRODUCTION 15
The Manjusrimulakalpa in that case would only be about a hundred years later than the Amitayus Sutra. If the Guhyasamaja is accepted as the very first work of the Vajrayana school it must be admitted that much time must have elapsed between the age of the Manjusrimulakalpa and that of the Guhyasamaja which is put down in circa 300 A. D. l
The beginning of the Sangiti in the Manjusrimulakalpa is in the orthodox style as opposed to the Tantric style which is decidedly later, and where Bhagavan is introduced in the company of a large number of women instead of an assembly of pious and devout Bodhisattvas only as in the earlier Sahgltis. The doctrine of the five Dhyani Buddhas or even their names, Mudras, Mantras, families, Saktis, colour and direc- tion are all absent in the Manjusrimulakalpa. Moreover, the Mantras and Mudras which were later systematized in the Vajrayana work of Guhyasamaja are found scattered in the body of the text of the Manju* srlmulakalpa in a disorganised manner. The Mantras of some of the Dhyani Buddhas are indeed to be found in the Manjusrimulakalpa although not exactly in the same meaning and form as in the later Guhyasamaja. The Manjusrimulakalpa further apeaks of Mantrayana but it does not refer to Vajrayana which is mentioned for the first time in the Guhyasamaja the Tantra of Secret Communion. Under the circumstances it is possible to call the Manjusrimulakalpa as one of the earliest Mahayana Sutra works on which perhaps is based the outward foundation of the Vajrayana system. Yet one who willread this work carefully will not fail to notice that it is a product behind which there is a history of development of several centuries. And probably, if ever one can go to the root of Mantrayana one will have to voice the opinion of £antaraksita and Kamalaslla that instruction on Tantras, Mudras and Mandalas were delivered by the Buddha for the benefit of such followers as would care more for their material prosperity than spiritual.
Vajrayana thus included in its purview all varieties of attractive tenets, notions, dogmas, theories, rites and practices, and incorporated all that was best in Buddhsim and probably in Hinduism also, and owing to this circumstance Vajrayana attained great fame and popularity. It satisfied everybody, the cultured and the uncultured, the pious and the sinner, the lower and the higher ranks of the people and devotees. Vajrayana catered to all tastes with equal efficiency, and it had some- thing useful for everybody. Its universal popularity became an esta- blished fact.
It is difficult to say from what exact locality Tantrism took its origin. In the Sadhanamala are mentioned the four Pithas or sacred spots of the
1. See introduction to Quhyasamaja, where this date has been discussed.
16 INTRODUCTION
Vajrayanists, namely, Kamakhya, Sirihatta, Purnagiri and Uddiyana. The Tibetan authorities are of opinion that the Tantric Buddhism origi- nated from Uddiyana, The location of Uddiyana thus is important for the history of the Buddhist Tantric literature.
Uddiyana is mentioned in the Sadhanamala rather frequently. The earliest manuscript of the Sadhanamala is dated in the Newari Era 285 which is equivalent to A. D. 1165. In this work Uddiyana is connected with the Sadhana of Kurukulla, Trailokyavasamkara, Marici and Vajrayogim. The Sadhanamala also connects Uddiyana with such Tantric authors as Saraha. The Jnanasiddhi of Indrabhuti is stated in the last colophon as having started from Uddiyana (Odiyana).
Uddiyana being one of the four Pithas sacred to Vajrayogim should be at least near Kamakhya (Kamarupa), and Sirihatta (Sylhet) in Assam and it is not unusual to think that all these four Pithas received their sanctity from temples dedicated to Vajrayogim. Thus Uddiyana has to be located in Eastern and Assam area.
In the mediaeval period when Tantras flourished, Vanga and Sama- tata were the two important centres of culture in Bengal. Vahga inclu- ded the present Dacca, Faridpur and Backerganj districts, while Samatata comprised the present Sylhet, Chittagong, Tipperah and Mymensingh districts. That Vahga and Samatata were the two great centres of culture in Bengal is borne out by the numerous Buddhist and Brahma- nical images of the Tantric type discovered in the whole of this region. Numerous old inscriptions, remains of old buildings, coins and terra- cottas found in these regions, confirm the conclusion that from the Vanga-Samatata area radiated different streams of culture to the rest of Eastern India. l
In this Vahga'Samatata region one of the most important places is the Pargana Vikrampur in the Dacca district. Anyone acquainted with the ancient inscriptions of Bengal will be able to appreciate the import- ance of Yikrampur which is sometimes mentioned as the seat from which imperial charters were issued. There was a great Buddhist monastery here in the reign of the Candras and the Senas. Atisa Dlpahkara, famous in Tibetan history as a great scholar and master of Tantric lore, is said to belong to the royal family of Vikrampur. Vikrampur is recognized even to-day as one of the foremost places of culture in East Bengal.
In this Pargana Vikrampur there is a fairly large and well-populated village which is now known by the rather extraordinary name of
1. Bhattasali : IBBS, intro. p. xxviii.
INTRODUCTION 17
Vajrayogini. Round about this village numerous Vajrayana images have been discovered, and among them may be noticed images of Jambhala, Parnasaban, Vajrasattva and Tara. The term * Vajra' inVajrayogim is also a familiar Buddhist word. Vajra is equivalent to Sunya. Vajrayogini is a Buddhist deity which the Hindus borrowed in the form of Chhinna- masta. Thus the name of the village appears to be unmistakably Bud- dhist. The village must have derived its name from the temple of Vajrayogini which was in existence in early times.
It has already been pointed out that the temples dedicated to Vajra- yogini could only be expected at four places, Kamakhya, Sirihatta, Pur- nagiri and Uddiyana. Out of these Kamakhya and Sirihatta (Sylhet) still retain their original names. Purnagiri which signifies a hill is not identified yet with certainty. But it is possible to spot the fourth place which is connected with Vajrayogini. Thus it becomes evident that the present village Vajrayogini was originally known as Uddiyana but as the deity Vrjrayogim became more popular later, the original name gradually disappeared giving place to the name of the deity. Tantrism of the Buddhists therefore originated here in Uddiyana-Vajrayogim, and thence was transmited to the rest of India. l
One of the chief topics dealt with in Vajrayana is the deity. These deities are a product of psychic exercises of the most subtle character, and are visualized by the worshipper in the course of intense meditation. These psychic exercises are called the Sadhanas a collection of which is published in the Sadhanamala already referred to. To appreciate Buddhist iconography, therefore, a reference to the Sadhana process of god-realisation is necessary. This process is described in the next section.
3. The Psychic Process of Sadhana.
The Tahtrics of ancient India were formidable optimists. They intuitively realised that though this universe is composed of matter and spirit, it is the spirit which always dominates over matter, and is un- doubtedly more powerful than the latter. There were several schools of thought in ancient India which took it for granted that spirit was supreme and that this spirit should be developed in order that power may be gained. Amongst these schools the Yoga and Tantra were pre- eminently the most influential and popular. The followers of these schools, particularly the latter, wanted to achieve through spiritual or psychic power everything that could be achieved in the material sphere. To-day for quick travel the material world presents to us railways,
For further details, see the author's article, entitled The Home of Tantric Buddhism in B. C. Law Commemmoration Volume, Vol. I.
3
18 INTRODUCTION
aeroplanes and steamers, but the Tantrics claimed that by spiritual culture weight of the body can be so reduced that it can fly over space to any distance within the shortest possible time. To-day for informa- tion about kinsmen in distant lands people send letters, wires and cables, but the Tantrics claim that by intense meditation alone they can visualize what is happening in other parts of the world, either by a projec- tion of the mind or by mentally travelling the distance in a few seconds. For conversing with a friend at a long distance the material world pro- vides telephones and wireless instruments but the Tantrics claim that by psychic exercises they can hear anything from any distance, even the voice of gods and other invisible beings in the firmament. When a man suffers from disease the material world provides doctors, medicines, injections and so forth, but to a Tantric these are unnecssary. By deve- loping psychic resources of the mind he can cure by a mere glance, or touch or by recitation of Mantras. These extraordinary powers of the mind are called Siddhis.
Thus it can be seen that the Tantrics recognised long before the present age that psychic culture is of the utmost importance in life, and through these exercises anything that can be accomplished in the mate- rial sphere can be achieved in the psychic sphere. This tendency even in the present day is a dominating factor in Indian life, and no one should wonder seeing people running after Sadhus and Sannyasins lea- ving aside modern scientific men in many of their difficulties. Occasion- ally, stories are told of miraculous powers of ascetics over the elements of nature or of their power of curing diseases for which apparently no recognised system of scientific medicine has discovered a cure. There are many such Yogins even now in India moving about in jungles, cities, caves and mountains, possessing wonderful and miraculous powers.
The Tantrics who were the advocates of psychic culture, by persistent efforts through mental exercises, used to obtain super-normal powers which were known as Siddhis. Those who gained such Siddhis were called Siddhas, and the process through which they obtained Siddhis called Sadhana. In the Yogasutra which is recognised to be the earliest work in Sanskrit on the subject of psychic exercises, enumerates eight different Siddhis. Later works mention more and the Brahmavaivarta Purana mentions thirty-four kinds of Siddhis including the eight already mentioned in the Yogasutra.
The Siddhas or those who attain supernormal powers are consi- dered to be of three distinct varieties, the Best, Middling and the Mild. The first class magicians can fulfil all their desires by mere thought, that is to say, as soon as a desire arises in his mind it is instantly fulfilled.
INTRODUCTION 19
The Middling variety of Siddhas is able to conquer death, commune with gods, enter unperceived into dead bodies or homes of others, move in the air, hear the gods talk, understand all terrestrial truths, obtain conveyances and ornaments, and are able to bewitch people, per* form miracles, remove diseases by glance or touch, extract poison, obtain erudition in scriptures, renounce all worldly enjoyments, prac- tise Yoga in all its subdivisions, show compassion to all beings and even obtain omniscience. The Mild or the third class of Siddha obtains fame, long life, conveyances, ornaments, familiarity with the king, popularity with royal personages and people of influence and power, wealth and prosperity, children and family.
The Siddhas of the first and second class were known as Mahasiddhas 'Great Magicians' and in India their number was recognized as eighty- four. Most of these Mahasiddhas flourished during the Pala Period of Indian history (8th to 12th centuries A.D.) and were famous because of their uncanny and prodigious feats.
The Sadhana or the process prescribed for attaining the different Siddhis forms the bulk of the Tantric literature of both the Buddhists and the Hindus. Thousands of Sadhanas were written, both in prose and in verse, in Sanskrit and thousands were translated into Tibetan and are now preserved in the pages of the Tibetan Tangyur. Besides, every Tantric manuscript, cart loads of which are even to*day to be found in public and private collections, describes the Sadhanas through which Siddhis are possible of attainment. The Buddhists had a special literature called the Sadhanas and they were always written in Sanskrit by many of the well known Tantric authors and the Mahasiddhas. This literature is now almost lost in original Sanskrit, but fortunately for us some collections of Sadhanas are still extant. These collections were given the names of Sadhanamala and Sadhanasamuccaya, and a critical edition of all available Sadhanas in these two collections is already published in two volumes in the Qaekwad's Oriental Series as Nos. 26 and 41. The publication of these Sadhanas has revealed a number of hitherto unknown and important facts. The Sadhanas revealed that the Buddhists were not lagging behind any other religion in India in the matter of psychic culture as advocated in the Tantras. Secondly, as these Sadhanas contain the description of a large number of Buddhist deities it becomes possible to differentiate them from the deities of the Hindu and Jain faiths, and to determine the purpose for which they were made and what they stood for.
The Sadhanas being most important for the study of Buddhist iconography it is necessary to give a general idea of the contents of the S§dhana or the detailed process through which spiritual eminence
20 INTRODUCTION
or Siddhi is obtained. For this purpose a summarised translation of an elaborate Sadhana in the Sadhanamala is given here. But before proceeding to translate the Sadhana it may be emphasized that it is a purely psychic process for the realisation and visualisation of the deity with whom the worshipper is asked to identify himself. The Sadhana in all cases is prescribed for the realisation of some god or goddess according to a fixed procedure laid therein.
For describing the contents of the Sadhanas a specimen is here selected which is published as Sadhana No. 98 in the Sadhanamala of the printed edition, for the realisation of the goddess Tara, composed by Sthavira Anupama Raksita who was a well-known Tantric author and who flourished before 1165 and whose works, five in number, are preserved in translation in the Tibetan Tangyur. The contents of this Sadhana is given below.
"The worshipper after leaving the bed in the morning should wash his feet and face and after purifying himself should go to a place which is lonely, agreeable, besmeared with scents, strewn with fragrant flowers, and then sit there in an easy pose. Then he should meditate on his heart the orb of the moon which originates from the first syllable -A- and on it think on the form of a beautiful blue lotus. On the filament of the lotus he should meditate on another moon the yellow germ syllable— Tarn— as destroying the darkness of ignorance, illuminating innumerable worlds of the ten quarters, and bringing from the firmament innumerable Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
'Then after an elaborate worship of these great compassionate Buddhas and Bodhisattvas with celestial flowers, incense, scents garlands, unguents, powders, mendicant dress, umbrellas, flags, bells, banners and the like, the worshipper should confess his sins with the following words ; 'Whatever sinful deeds I have done, caused to be done, or consented to be done, in this endless cycle of creation, everything I confees'.
"Thereafter, meditating on the restraint of wrong deeds he should give his assent to the meritorious deeds of others with the following Mantra ; 'I assent to the virtuous deeds of the Sugatas, Pratyekas, Sravakas, the Jinas and their sons the Bodhisattvas, and of the world with all the gods beginning with Brahman'.
'Then he should take refuge in the Three Jewels with the Mantra ; 'I take refuge in the Buddha so long as the Bodhi essence subsists ; I take refuge in the Dharma so long as the Bodhi essence subsists ; and I take refuge in the Sangha so long as. the Bodhi essence subsists'.
'Thereafter the adherence to the path of the Tathagatas should be made with the Mantra : 'By me shall be followed the path indicated
INTRODUCTION 21
by the Tanthagatas and naught else',
'Then a prayer should be uttered with the Mantra : The gods and the Tathagatas instruct me with such incontrovertible advices on law by which all beings may be freed from the bonds of the world quickly*.
'Then he should meditate on the results of his meritorious deeds with the words ; 'Whatever merit I have acquired by the seven kinds of extraordinary worship like the confession of sins, etc. all that I devote to gain at the end the final Sambodhi'.
" After having finished the seven kinds of extraordinary worship the deities should be dismissed with the formula : -Om Ah Muh- or with the following words : Thou movest now according to Thy will, being besmeared with the sandal paste of Silas (conduct), wearing the garments of the Dhyana (meditation) and strewn with the flowers of the Bodhi (Enlightenment)'.
'Then the worshipper should meditate on the Four Brahmas, of Friendship, Joyousness, Compassion and Indifference. Friendship is the love that exists in all beings like the love towards the only son, or like its fruition in their welfare and happiness.
"Compassion again is of what kind ? It is the desire to save all beings from misery and from causes that lead to misery. The desire that I shall even save the beings who are burnt in the great fire of suffering from the three evils and have entered the prison of Samsara is what is called Compassion. Or it is the desire to save all beings suffering from the three evils from the sea of Samsara.
"Mudita or Joyousness is of the following nature. It is the desire in all beings of the world for the attainment of Buddhahood which is unlikely to materialize. Or it is the attraction in all beings towards the virtues that * exist in the world and to the enjoyment of spiritual powers arising out of them.
"What is Indifference or Upeksa ? It is the doing of great welfare to all beings, good or bad, by overcoming adverse requests and obstacles. Or it is the desire that comes of its own accord to do good to all beings without the least craving for any return, love or hatred. Or it is the indifference towards the eight human institutions of gain or loss, fame or notoriety, praise or blame, pleasure or pain, and similar things.
'Thus meditating on the Four Brahmas the inherent purity of the phenomenal world should be meditated upon. All phenomena are indeed inherently pure, and therefore, the worshipper should think himself to be pure by nature. This natural purity of all phenomena should be established by the formula : Om svabhavasuddhah sarvadharmah svabhavasuddho'ham — . If all phenomena are inherently
22 INTRODUCTION
pure, where then is the possibility of the cycle of existence ? Because of its being covered up with such thought categories as the subject and the object. The way of purging of this impurity is the meditation on the good path By this it is made to disappear. Thus is established the inherent purity of all phenomena.
" After meditating on the purity of the phenomenal existence the Sunyata of all phenomena should be meditated upon. Here ounya means this. He should conceive the entire universe with its mobile and immobile creations as the clear manifestation of non-duality when the mind is devoid of all the extensions of such thought categories as the subject and the object. The Sunyata should be established by the formula — Orh Sunyatajnanavajrasvabhavatmyako'ham — .
"Then as previously stated, the worshipper should meditate on his heart the goddess Aryatara who originates from the yellow germ-syllable — Tam — placed on the orb of the moon with the deer on its lap.
"The worshipper should meditate on goddess Aryatara as one-faced and two-armed of deep green complexion, fully decked in all ornaments, of youthful appearance, clad in celestial garments, holding on her crown the miniature figure of the parental Dhyani Buddha Amogha* siddhi. The deity should further be meditated upon as sitting in the ardhaparyahka attitude and showing the gift-bestowing signal in the right hand and carrying a full-blown lotus in the left hand.
"The goddess of this description should be meditated upon as long as desired. Then the eternally accomplished Bhagavatl should be drawn out from within by the spreading rays that illumine the three worlds, the rays that issue forth from the yellow germ syllable — Tam— placed on the orb of the spotted moon which is enclosed within the filament of a beautiful blue lotus. After thus discovering her, she should be placed on the firmament and should be worshipped with the offerings of scented water and fragrant flowers contained in the vessel inlaid with gems at the feet of the goddess. She should also be worshipped with various rites, external and internal, by means of flowers, incense, light stick, food offerings, scents, garlands, unguents, powders, mendicant dress, umbrella, flags, bell, banner and the like. Thus after repeatedly worshipping her and offering her panegyrics, the Mudra or the mystic signal should be exhibited. The palms of the hands, should be joined together with the two middle fingers stretched in the form of a needle. The two first fingers should be slightly bent their tips touching the third phalanges of the first fingers. The two third fingers should be concealed within the palm, and the two little fingers should be stret- ched. This is called the Utpala Mudra or the signal of the night lotus*
INTRODUCTION 23
"With this Mudra the goddess of the essence of Knowledge in the front should be propitiated, and then she should be commingled with the goddess of the essence of Time within, and by so doing the non- duality of the two should be meditated upon. Then the rays issuing forth from the yellow germ syllable — Tarn— placed on the spotless moon will appear to him as illumining the ten quarters, as causing the removal of the poverty and misery of all beings by showers of various gems and as satisfying them by the nectar of advice on the nature of Sunya.
"Engaging himself in doing good to the world, the worshipper should meditate on the form of goddess Tara which is identified with the universe. Further, he should meditate repeatedly until tired on the yellow germ syllable and the Bhagavati contained therein, He who is unable to meditate thus should mutter the Mantra which in this case is — Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha — . This is the lord of all Mantras, is endowed with great powers, and is saluted, worshipped and revered by all Tathagatas.
"After having finished his meditation on the form of Tara he should think the world as identical withe th goddess and should move about thinking his own form as that of the goddess. Generally speaking, those who meditate on the Bhagavati in this manner, all the eight supernormal powers fall at their feet, and other small powers come to him as a matter of course. Whoever meditates on the Bhagavati in the lonely caves of mountains espies her with his own eyes. The Bhagavati herself gives him his breath, nay more, even the Buddhahood which is most difficult to attain comes to him like a plum on the palm of his hand."
The above is a summary of the contents of a Sadhana devoted to a single goddess, Tara, and there are hundreds of such Sadhanas for other gods and goddesses. But the important point to be noted in this connection is that the gods have no independent and real existence apart from the mind of the worshipper and the manner of worship. The deities possess no external form, but represent purely mental conceptions of the Sadhaka who by means of the Sadhana undergoes a detailed mental exercise for the development of his spiritual or psychic powers.
The discussion in this section leads to a consideration of godhead in Tantrism in order that the deities treated in this work may be studied in their true perspective,
24 INTRODUCTION
4. Godhead in Buddhism.
I There is a great deal of confusion regarding the true nature of the deity whether it is of the Hindu or Buddhist conception. The general belief is that the deity is nothing more than an idol, and therefore, not worthy of any attention. The deities are connected, as all students of Tantra know, with Sadhana and Siddhi, and the conception of godhead therefore is an essentially spiritual or psychic matter. {.
The Sadhana is concerned with the process for worshipping a parti" cular deity as has been made abundantly clear in the previous section. This consists in meditation in a quiet place and there practise Yoga till a state similar to deep sleep is brought about. In this state of deep sleep the ascetic communes with the Infinite Spirit or the inexhaustible store-house of energy, which is supposed to be the highest creative prin- ciple behind the world structure. By this communion the ascetic draws forth energy from that inexhaustible store-house and becomes powerful himself. This process of the realisation of the Infinite Spirit is what is called Sadhana. The deity is part of this psychic process.
The Tantras are, in fact, sciences dealing with psychic matters, and give directions for a variety of psychic exercises. It therefore stands lo reason that the Tantra is a science or a Vidya requiring competent pre- ceptors and efficient disciples. Like all other sciences the Tantra is not also open to all and the sundry, but only for those who are initiated into the mysteries of the science, and are competent to follow the pres- cribed practices with patience and zeal. These are the right type of disciples for Tantric practices, and may be called the Adhikarins or rightful persons. In many Tantric works long chapters are devoted to the qualifications of the preceptors *and disciples and there are also rules for their respective competence to give or receive initiation.
The Adhikarin must have a certain equipment before he proceeds to receive his initiation in the Tantra from a preceptor. And, in fact, as the Tantra path is an exceedingly difficult path, the disciple is required to have a great deal more equipment than is necessary for persuing any other Vidya known to ancient India. First of all, the neophyte must be patient, enduring, devoted and sincere, and he must serve his preceptor with whole-hearted devotion. But the most important equipment nece- ssary for him is that he should be proficient in the art of Yoga and Hathayoga without which it is not possible to proceed with any Sadhana worth the name or with any difficult Tantric practice. The process of the visualisation of the deity requires intensive training as the following account will show.
The difficult psychic process is described in detail and in an elaborate form in the Guhyasamaja which may be called the Bible of the Tantric
INTRODUCTION 25
Buddhists. A perusal of the book makes it clear that when the Bodhicitta or the Will to Enlightenment mingles with Sunya or the Infinite Spirit in the highest state of meditation the mind-sky is filled with innumerable visions and scenes, until at la?t, like sparks the individual visualises letters or germ syllables, which gradually assume the shape of deities, first indistinct, then changing into perfect, glorious and living forms, the embodiment of the Infinite Sunya. They appear in bright, effulgent, gorgeous and divine beauty in form, ornaments and dress. Violent deities in like manner appear before him in the most violent form con- ceivable, in an awe-inspiring manner with dishevelled hair, blood-shot eyes, bare fangs, decked in ornaments of human skulls, severed heads and human bones, with frightful weapons and dress. These beings both benefic and malefic, are known as deities, and once realised they never leave the ascetic but become instrumental in bestowing on the ascetic more and more spiritual and psychic powers.
I The process of the evolution of the deity is described in Tantric works, where clear-cut statements are made on the origin of the deities and their gradual evolution from the germ syllable. In the Advayavajra- sahgraha, for instance, it is said : f
f "The form of the deity is an explosion of the Sunya. It is by nature non-existent. Whenever there is an explosion it must be Sunya in essence."1 I
| In another place in the same book it is declared : /
I" From the right perception of Sunyata proceeds the germ-syllable ; from the germ-syllable proceeds the conception of an icon, and from the icon its external representations. The whole process therefore is one of dependent origination."-' j
The equipment necessary for persons competent to worship and realize deities, and the nature of the evolution of the deities have already been indicated. Now it is necessary to state the views of the Guhyas- amaja regarding the principles of god-realisation, and the various expe- riences through which the Sadhaka has to pass before the deity is realised and visualised. The Guhyasamaja3 calls this process Upaya (means) which is recognised as of four kinds, Seva, Upasadhana, Sadha- na and Mahasadhana. Seva (worship) is again sub-divided into two, namely, Samanya (ordinary) and Uttama (excellent). Of these two, the Samanya Seva consists of four Vajras : first, the conception of Sunyata ; second, its transformation into the germ-syllable ; third, its evolution
1. ADV. p. 50, lines 7, 8. r 2. ADV. p. 51, lines, 6, 7.
3, Guhyasamaja, chapter, 18, pp. 162, 163.
4
26 INTRODUCTION
in the form of a deity, and the fourth, the external representation of the deity.
In the UttamaSeva (excellent worship) Yoga with its six limbs should be employed. These six limbs are : Pratyahara, Dhyana, Pranayama, Dharana, Anusmrti and Samadhi.. Pratyahara (control) is here descri- bed as the process by which the ten sense-organs are controlled. Dhyana (meditation) is explained as the conception of the five desired objects through the five Dhyani Buddhas, namely, Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi and Aksobhya. This Dhyana is again sub- divided into five kinds : Vitarka (cogitation), Vicara (thinking), Priti (pleasure), Sukha (happiness), and Ekagrata (concentration).
Pranayama (breath control) is the control of the breathing process by which breath which is of the nature of the five Bhutas (elements) and the five kinds of knowledge, and is like a bright gem, is drawn from inside and placed as a lamp at the tip of the nose and is meditated upon.
Dharana (meditation) is the meditation of one's own Mantra on the heart, and the placing of it on the Pranabindu (heart centre) after restraining the jewel of sense-organs. When this is done Nimittas (signs) make their appearance. These signs are of five kinds and appear in succession. The first is the sign of the Maricika (mirage), the second is that of smoke, the third is of fire-flies, the fourth is of light, and the fifth of constant light like a cloudless sky.
Anusmrti (memory) is the constant meditation of the object for which the psychic exercise is undertaken, and by this Pratibhasa (revela- tion) takes place. After commingling the two elements Prajna (know- ledge) and Upaya (means) the whole objective world should be concei- ved as contracted in the form of a lump, and this should be meditated upon in the Bimba (icon-circle). By this process the transcendental knowledge is suddenly realised by the worshipper and is known as Samadhi (visualisation).
For the purpose of visualisation it is necessary that the process should be continued for six months and this is done according to the Guhyas- amaja always while enjoying all kinds of desired objects If within six months the deity does not show herself the process should be repeated thrice while following the rules of restraint duly prescribed. If the deity is not visualised even after this, it should be forced by the practice of Hathayoga. By this Yoga the ascetic most certainly attains the know- ledge of the deity.
The above incidentally shows what part is played by Rajayoga and Hathayoga in the process for the realisation of the deity. It shows also that the Tantra begins where Yoga ends. Therefore, the worshippers of the deity must first be adepts in Yoga before they make an attempt
INTRODUCTION 27
to follow the more advanced science of the Tantra which obviously, is not meant for ordinary people. The conception of godhead in Buddhist as well as in the Hindu Tantra is thus philosophically most profound.
The individual soul is variously called the Bodhisattva ( Bodhi Essence), Bodhicitta (Will to Enlightenment), Jivatman (individual soul) while the Infinite or the Universal soul is variously known as Sunya Brahma and Paramatman. When they combine in the state of the highest meditation and concentration, an artificial condition akin to deep sleep is brought about, and the deity appears in the mind sky in flashes and sparks. The nature of the Jivatman being finite, it is not possible to realise the Infinite in its entirety, that is to say, the result of the mystic experience of the Jivatman also remains finite. And as the object for which the worshipper sits in meditation is different in differ- ent cases the deity visualised also becomes different. It is the Bhavana (desire) of the worshipper which is of the nature of a psychic force that reacts on the Infinite Energy, giving rise to different manifestations according to the nature of the reaction. The nature of this reaction is of illimitable variety and thus the resultant deity also appears in an infinite variety of forms, and this seems to be the chief reason why we find gods and goddesses of different forms in the pantheons of both the Buddhists and the Hindus. The ascetic who visualises a particular deity, generally makes it a rule to record the process by which the visualisation of a particular deity took place, for the benefit of his disciples in order that the latter may realise the deity in the easiest and most efficient manner.
The Infinite Energy is frilnva in Vajrayana^jmd this Sunya is invoked by the worshippers of different classes with different desires and differ^ ent degrees otjnental development. As Sunya isinvoked in for thou- sandandjane purposes, it manifests itself in thousand and jane^jwayj^ in thousand and onejorms, and it is precisely in this manner that the numbeFof deitiesin the Buddhist pantheon increased to an enormous extentT^TKe psychic exercise prescribed in the case of different deities is different in the Sadhanas. The Sadhanas become less or more difficult according to the mental capacity of the worshippers, who are generally classified as High, Middling or Low. The regulation of life in the case of the worshippers of different classes become more or less stringent according to the degree of psychic progress.
In the realisation of the deity, there are thus three elements, the worshipper, the deity and their connecd9D_Q£_Jsientity. These are fiamed ifr~Tfi5~TanirIc works as the Bodhicitta, the Mantrapurusa (Mantra body) and the Ahamkara (identity). The worshipper is called the Bodhisattva (Bodhi essence), and , his mind is known as the Bodhi*
28 INTRODUCTION
citta (Will to Enlightenment). The deity is the embodiment of the cluster of letters contained in a Mantra which are dynamized by exces- sive concentration and repetition. The sacred words or letters set up strong vibrations and ultimately condense themselves in the form of deities and this is called the Mantrapurusa (Mantra body) or Mantra person. But before the Mantra person is visualised there must always be a complete identity between the Bodhiciita and the Mantrapurusa. The subject is both interesting and important for the study of gods and goddesses, and therefore merits a detailed treatment.
The Vajrayana conception of the Bodhi mind appears to be the same as advocated in Yogacara, an idea of which can be gained by a reference to the Tattvasahgraha of Santaraksita. The Bodhi mind is like a conti- nuous stream of consciousness which changes every moment^ the consciousness of the previous moment giving rise to or causing the consciousness of the succeeding moment. The chain of momentary consciousness which is without a beginning or an end, operating in unison with the all powerful act-force leads it either to degradation or to emancipation according as the actions done are good or bad. The Bodhi mind is by nature surcharged with impurities such as desire, memory, existence, non-existence, subject, object and the rest which are all unreal. To purify this chain of consciousness is the sole aim of the Bodhisattva, but so long as impurities are not removed, it will be subject to a series of transmigrations either in the world of gods or men, or of animals, birds, ghosts and demons.
According as the impurities are removed one after another, the Bodhi mind commences an upward march in the different spiritual spheres, called Bhumis, and stays in them only so long as it is not qualified to ascend to a higher sphere. The number of Bhumis are recognized generally as ten and the Sutra which describes them is called the Dasabhumika Sutra. The Bodhi mind obtains emancipation, or in other words when it crosses the ten Bhumis mentioned above, it is rewarded with moniscience. These Bhumis are not meant for the Hinayanists but were exclusively designed for the Mahayanists who are the real Bodhisattvas. No Buddhist will be called a Bodhisattva who has no compassion for suffering humanity or who will not be prepared to sacrifice his all for the benefit of others, The Vajrayanist concep- tion is the same, and it defines Bodhi mind as one where Sunya and Karuna (compassion) work in unison. In the eye of a Vajrayanist the external world has much the same significance as it appears in Yogacara. The Tantras characterize the external world with its movable and immovable objects like a pot, picture, carriage, house, stone-house, mountains and the rest as reduced by reason to mere appearances, in
INTRODUCTION 29
the same way as magic and dream are considered to be appearances. Therefore, the Vajrayanists hold that external objects have no greater reality than magic, mirage, shadow or dream, and their reality cannot be proved by reason.
The Mantras or mystic syllables constitute the backbone of Vajrayana worship, and are of illimitable varieties. The Mantras are mostly unmeaning words but they sometimes reveal the influence of some unknown language. The Vajrayanists maintain that the Mantras are endowed with great powers. "What is there impossible" they say, "For the Mantras to perform if they are applied according to rules ?" It is also said that through repeated mutterings of the MantrdS such power is generated that it can astonish the whole world. The Mantra has power even to confer Buddhahood or omniscience. The merits that accrue from the repetitions of the Mantra of Mahakala are so numerous that all the Buddhas taken together cannot count them even if they were to count without celadon for a number of days and nights. By the DharanI of Avalokitesvara even an ass can memorize three hundred verses. The Mantra of Ekajata is said tQ be so powerful that the moment it is uttered a man becomes free from danger, he is always followed by good iortune and his enemies are all destroyed. The repetition of the rnantra is however to be done with the greatest care, for instance, it should not be muttered too quickly nor too slowly. The mind at the time of repetition should be concentrated on the letters of the Mantra and should be free from all evil thoughts, and the mantra should not be repeated when the mind is fatigued or tired.
Thus it can be seen that the Vajrayanists believed that the Mantras were endowed with dynamic power. Their power consisted in the arrangement of the syllables, the purity of which is to be guarded with the greatest care. The Mantra is required to be received with proper ceremonies from a competent preceptor. The Mantra is powerful when it comes from a preceptor who is pure, and has repeated conti- nuously so as to visualize the Mantra person or the deity sacred to the Mantra. The letters of the Mantra can only be dynamized by conti- nual repetition by day and at night until the deity is visualized. When the Mantra becomes powerful the vibrations let loose by the Bodhi mind react on the universal Sunya which explodes in consequence in the divine form of the deity and appears before his mind sky. Accor* ding as the calling signal is different in different cases the deity becomes different, and thus its number increases. The deities are nothing but the forms created by the force of word or letter vibrations, and by continuous practice anyone can visualise the deity. The Mantra idea
30 INTRODUCTION
is not only logically correct but also philosophically profound.
The relation between the caller and the calling deity is one of identi- fication. It is called Ahamkara or the identity of the Bodhi mind with the deity, the manifestation of Sunya or the ultimate reality, The identity is established with the Mantra "I am the goddess and the goddess is in me". The worshipper should conceive himself as the deity with the same complexion, form and limbs as described in the Sadhana and should, instead of worshipping any external object, worship himself. The Bodhi mind and the deity apparently signify duality but their | duality disappears with enlightenment. The Bodhi mind is of the nature of Sunya and the deity is a manifestation of Sunya and, therefore, both have the same origin. But to realise that the two are the same requires perfect knowledge. Continuous meditation and austerities enable the worshipper to shed the veil of ignorance which makes one thing appear as two. The Bodhi mind is further called Karuna (compassion) and the ultimate reality as Sunyata, and when the two commingle, it is called Advaya or non-duality. As copper leaves its dirty colour (and become gold) when it comes in contact with the magic tincture (of alchemy), even so, the body leaves off its attachment, hatred, etc. when it comes in contact with the tincture of Advaya. This Advaya is a form of cognition where the Bodhi mind commingles with Sunya and becomes one with it. To symbolize this principle Vajrayana brought in the conception of the Yab-yum form of deities in which the deity appears locked in close embrace with his Sakti or the female coun- terpart. When the deity is single, it means that the female counterpart has merged into the deity even as salt melts in water. The deity is •Sunya and the female principle is the Bodhi mind, or the first is the ultimate reality and the female is Karuna (compassion). The Bodhi mind can become ultimate reality through the one principle of Karuna. This Karuna is symbolized in the form of Avalokitesvara, the great com- passionate Bodhisattva who sacrificed his Nirvana in order to serve his fellowmen.
From the foregoing even a casual observer" can find that theVajrayan- ists formulated the principle that behind the creation there is arTinSomj- tablewill which multiplies in the formof words and gradually con- densethemselves in the form of the_dejtj^ The iemale counterpart is a further grossenirig process.* T&JSLJS the creative process, grossening process andAe process of evolution.) This process can only be stopped by the princijpIeTof Karuna Tcompassion) which gradually leads the Bodhi mind to soar higher and higher, and to become finer and thinner before it merges in £unya. According jo Vajrayana, therefore, the
INTRODUCTION 31
reverse process of involution starts only when the Bodhi mind is sur* charged with Karuna or compassion.
5. The Pantheon.
The word Pantheon is derived from pan — all, and theos— god and therefore, concerns itself with all gods belonging to a community follow- ing the same religion. In Hinayana or Primitive Buddhism there was no pantheon to which worship was offered by any Buddhist. But in Mahay an a a large number of deities was included and later, in its more advanced form of Vajrayana this pantheon became surprisingly large with deities of every description. \ Virtually, there was an epedemic of deification in which every philosophical dogma, ritualistic literature, abs^ tract ideas, human qualities, even desires such as sleeping, yawning, and sneezing were deified or given a deity form.
The varied, extensive, and diversified pantheon of the Northern Buddhists owes its origin to Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana. There are certain indications that Buddhism had no pantheon before Tantrism was well established. In very early days Buddhism recognised thirty- three gods of the Hindus who were the residents of the Trayastrimsa Heaven which is one of the Rupa heavens. Buddha did not believe in gods or worship, and in the Saundarananda Kavya of Asvaghosa we find Buddha discouraging his half-brother Nanda to touch his feet in token of worship. He told Nanda that he would not be in the least pleased by Nanda's taking the dust of his feet, but he would bless him if he would follow the precepts of true Saddharma. Buddha was deified in Mahayana which considered him to be Lokottara or superhuman. } In Buddnist art also Jbfruddha images are not met with in the earlier schools such as J3anchi and Bharhut, and it is believed that the Graeco-Buddhists of Gandhara were the first to carve out his image in stone.\ This is the view held by the celebrate3 French archaeologist Professor A. Foucher. 2 In Bharhut and Sanchi scenes connected with the life of the Buddha, such as the dream of his mother Mayadev! (fig. 1), and the symbols of Buddha like the Bodhi Tree, his head-dress his foot-prints (figs, 2, 3,4, 5), and the rest used to be freely represented, but his actual likeness was regarded as too scared to admit of representation. Dr. Coomaraswamy on the other hand has shown that the Mathura school of sculpture can have an equally strong claim to antiquity and probably for carving out the first image of Buddha. These are great authorities and it is not possible here to examine their theories in detail. For the present work it is immaterial whether the claim for carving out the first image of
1. Kern ; Manual of Buddhism, p. 3
2. Beginnings of Buddhist Art, p. 127.
32 INTRODUCTION
Buddha is established in favour ofjsither Gandhara QjlMathura. It is enough to know that there are many images of Buddha in these two schools of art.
Besides the sacred symbols connected with Buddha's life and teachings, worship was offered by the Buddhists to numerous other objects. One of the most important among these objects is the Stupa which is regarded as the embodiment of the Buddhis^lJmv^ with all the heavens as conceived in Buddhism The stupas received worship even in the life-time of theBy^Ih^^and continued throughout the centuries after his Mahaparinirvana J Such stupas are found in abun- dance in the Buddhist countries, and a few celebrated stupas in Nepal are illustrated here in (Figs. 6, 7, 8) They are the Stupas of the Svayambhunatha (twlgo-Simbhu), the Bodhnath and Kathe Simbhu. Besides the Stupas, the Three Jewels of Buddhism, known by the names
of the Rutjflha, Dharma and Sangha were conceived in the form of
deities a ri (Twors hip wa s" freely offered to them by the Buddhists in both symbolic and human forms The images of the Holy Triad as obtained in Nepal are here illustrated. (Figs. 9, 10, 11). Out of the three, one Dharma is a goddess.
Later, a number of gods and goddesses are described in the Manjusrimulakalpa which is believed to be an earlier work than the Guhyasamaja which is dated circa A. D, 300 ] Again in the Prajna- paramita Buddha is worshipped elaborately with diverse paraphernalia of worship. But even then it does not seem clear that Buddhism at this time had any conception of a well-defined and well-classified pantheon. It is in the Guhvasamaja that the idea of a pantheon, rationally classified, is properly and systematically crystallised. _JHej£e for the first time are found the descriptions of the five Dhyani Buddhas, tngi£_ rnantras, their Mandalas^ and their baktis or remale^gjnitprparti These Dhyani Buddhas represent the five Skandhas or the five cosmic elements of which the world is composed. They are here described as the progenitors of the five Kulas or families of gods and goddesses. The families owe allegiance to their progenitors who are known as Kulesas or Lords of Families. In the Guhyasamaja it is said :
"The five Kulas (families) are the Dvesa (hatred), Moha (delusion), Raga (attachment), Cintamani (Wishing Gem), and Samaya, (convention) which conduce to the attainment of all desires and emancipation." -
The emanations or offsprings of these Dhyani Buddhas constitute their families. It is in this way that the Buddhists built a well-classified pantheon with its multiplicity of gods and goddesses, and when these
1. See the discussion on the subject in Guhyasamaja, intro. p. XXXVI— XXXVII.
2. Guhyasamaja : p. 6.
Fig. 1 Maya's Dream.
( RJi^rhryf \
SYMBOL-WORSHIP
Fig. 2 Bodhi Tree. ( Amaravati )
34 INTRODUCTION
were represented in art, they were required to show their origin by holding on their heads the miniature figure of their parental Dhyani Buddha. Every deity almost without exception was given various forms with two, four, six, eight, ten, twelve, sixteen and even more hands, and proportionately one head to three, four, six, and eight heads. They were given different colours, different expressions and different companions according as they were worshipped in the differ* ent Tantric rites and according as they were required to discharge different functions, from curing a disease to the killing of an enemy. The artists had a considerable hand in executing the images and they introduced their own traditions, provincialisms and innovations The votaries also according as they wanted to have their gods in a powerful form, added extra hands , heads and feet to suit their own ideas and whims, and it is precisely in this way that the deities increased to an amazing number.
The Guhyasamaja or the Tantra of Secret Communion which is perhaps the first book inculcating Vajrayana philosophy of Mahasukha is a product of circa 300'A.D. which is the time of Asanga. Quite naturally the Tantra could not get publicity as the public mind was not prepared to receive the revolutionary innovations introduced in it. Thus thf Tonfra wj*nt into private hands and was handed down through an unbroken cbnin r>f Hums ^nrl disciples for thr^ hnndtw] ypQrg 1>r> the most secret manner possible. It obtained publicity through the teachings and mystic songs of the Buddhist Vajracaryyas or Siddhas in about the middle of the 7th century. It is for this reason that references to the pantheon in the general Buddhistic literature are not n^T"wi^ nor the accounts of the
Chinese travellers show much acquaintance with the pantheon, when they came to India to investigate the condition of Buddhism in India, Despite this certain names of Buddhist gods and goddesses are indeed met with in their writings, though they do not pertain to the well classified pantheon referred to above. In the SukhayatT Vynhfl \yjrfch was translated into Chinese between A. D. 148*170 the name of Amitabha appears for the first time as the presiding deity of the Sukhavati or thc_Akanistha heaven where he is believed to have brought forth Avalokitesyara into existence.* It should be remembered that in fKe Vajrayana works also this heaven has been characterized as the abode of all gods and goddesses. In the smaller recension of the Sukhavati Vyuha which was translated into Chinese between A. D. 417 mention is made of two more gods namely Aksobhya as a
Sukhavati Vyuha, pp. 1, 28, 32.
INTRODUCTION 35
Tathagatajand ManjusrL_as a^Bodhisattva^ Fa-Hien (A. D. 394-414) mentions the names of MaSjusrT; Avalokteesvara, and the future Buddha Maitreya, while Yuan Cbwang (629-645 A. D.) refers to the names of Avalokitesvara, Harlti, Ksitigarbha, Maitreya, Manjusn, Padmapani, Vaisravana, Sakya Buddha, £akya Bodhisattva, and Yama together with such deified saints as Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Asahga, Sumedhas and others. I-Tsing (671-695 A.D.) mentions the names of Avalokitesvara, Amitayus, Hariti, the Catur-Mahafajikas, Maitreya, Manjusri and Yama besides several others. Santideva (695-730 A.D.) in his oiksasamuccaya mentions the names of Aksobhya as a Tathagata, Gaganaganja as a Bodhisattva, Simhavikridita as a Tathagata, Cunda, Trisamayaraja, Marici, Simhanada, Manjughosa and many others. ] After Santideva the Tantra of the Buddhists got wide publicity, and the Tantric works written after his time all referred to the pantheon and described numerous gods, especially the Dhyani Buddhas a definite product of Tantric Buddhism. The Sadhana literatuie which describes the forms of gods and goddesses and lays down the procedure for worshipping them was developed by the Mahasiddhas or great magi- cians like Saraha, Nagarjuna, Sabaripa, Anahgavajra, Indrabhuti and others, although it is very probable that the earliest Sadhana was composed by Asanga who flourished in circa 300 A.D. In the Sadhana attributed to Asanga the Dhyani Buddhas and their emanations are referred to.
When a reference is made to the numerous images executed in the different schools of art it also becomes palpable that the Buddhist pantheon was not well developed before the Tantras got wide publicity injiboutjthe middle of the 7th century AT)i InTKe Gandhara school, for instance, Jbesides the Buddha images, there are images of Jambhala Kubera, Indra, Maitreya, Haritl and several unidentified Bodhisattva images. In the Mathura school which was either contemporaneous or somewhat later than the Gandhara school there are numerous Buddha and Bodhisattva images along with those of Kubera, the Yaksas and Nagas. The Mathura school extended to the early Gupta period2 and here also later Buddhist images of Tantric flavour are not met with. Not even the images of Avalokitesvara, Manjusri are to be found in this school. The case of the later Magadha school however, is otherwise. The Magadha school included the images found in Sarnath, Nalanda, Odantapuri, Kurkihar, Gaya and other ancient sites in Bihar. The most flourishing period of the Magadha school
1. Bendall's introduction to Siksaasmuccaya, p. V.
2. Vogel : The Mathura School of Sculpture in A.S I. Annual Report, 1906-7, p. 145.
36
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38 INTRODUCTION
was contemporaneous with the reign of the Pala kings of Bengal and lasted till the Muhammadan ^conquest of Bihar and Bengal in the beginning of the thirteenth century A. D. In the Magadha school aj£ to be found a ^definite evidence of the existence of a well classified pantKeoirTas conceive3"lrrVajrayana Buddhism. In most of the images there are figures of five Dhyani Buddhas on the halo round the head of the principal deity, as also others with miniature figures of Dhyani Buddhas on the crown to indicate the origin of the deity installed. Again, unlike the Mathura and Gandhara schools there is a distinct dearth of Buddha images in later schools of art, and even when he is represented, he takes the semi-mythical form of Vajrasana being flanked by Avalokitesvara and Maitreya on two sides. In the Magadha school therefore Buddha lost his original importance and became similar to the Dhyani Buddha Aksobhya as is evident from the numerous Sadhanas dedicated to the worship of Vajrasana Buddha with the earth touching signal. The Bodhisattva images are also not so stereotyped as they are found either in Gandhara or in Mathura. The Magadha school is characterised by its wide variety of images of gods and goddesses and this will be apparent to any visitor who visits the museums at Sarnath, Nalanda, Patna, or even at Calcutta, and takes a round in the extensive ruins of the Odantapuri Vihara (Modern Bihar) on the Bakhtiyarpur Bihar Light Railway. The same is the case with the ruins of Gaya, Kurkihar, Sahet-Mahet and Kasia. At Sarnath, the contents of the museum are rich with such interesting and symbolic images as Sadaksari Lokesvara, Ucchusma Jambhala, Manjusri, Tara, Vasudhara, Marlci, all the Five Dhyani Buddhas, Vajrasattva the sixth Dhyani Buddha and numerous others belonging to the Vajrayana pantheon. Nalanda images are enriched with the same deities as are found in Sarnath.
The Bengal school which is contemporaneous with the Magadha school is distinguished by the high class of art it developed and for its beauty of execution. Its flourishing period ranged from the 10th century till the conquest of Bengal by the Muhammadans. Many of the specimens of the Bengal school are preserved in the museums at Calcutta, Dacca, Rajshahi, and the Vangiya Sahitya Parishad, and a large number of them are scattered about in the Pargana Vikrampur and in the districts of Dinajpur, Rajshahi, Birbhum and Comilla. In this school many interesting and unique specimens of images belonging to Tantric Buddhism are met with. From the above it becomes clear that the artists were acquainted with the descriptions of deities as given in the Sadhana literature, because the images and the Dhyanas as given in the Sadhana coincide most remarkably. In this school
INTRODUCTION 39
•
are to be found such images as Heruka, Vasudhara, Jambhala, Arapa- cana, Khasarpana, Parnasabari, Simhanada, Manjuvara, Aparajita, Mahapratisara, Nairatma, Sadaksan Lokesvara, Mahasri Tara, Khadi- ravani Tara along with many others too numerous to mention. Scholars desirous of having more information on the subject are recommended to refer to the excellent work of Dr. N. K. Bhattasali, entitled, The Iconography of Buddhist and Brhamanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum where incidentally images discovered elsewhere in Eastern Bengal have also been treated. Another monumental work on the subject is R. D. Banerji's Eastern Indian School of Mediceval Sculpture, published by the Archaeological Department of the Government of India.
The images of Buddhist deities found at Ajanta, Ellora and the cave temples of Western India show signs of immature Tantra and may be assigned to a period before the 7th century A. D. although some of the paintings and sculptures are of long antiquity. It does not seem that the Tantras were very popular with the Buddhists of Western India or that they were influenced by the teachings of the Tantra which was mainly a product of Eastern India. Had it not been so, the cave temples would have at least exhibited some of the Tantric deities such as Manjusrl, Tara, Khasarpana, Jambhala, Prajnaparamita and others. The Javanese art seems to have been profoundly influenced by the Bengal school, and the images of gods and goddesses as found in the Borobudur temple show that they were acquainted with many deities of the Vajrayana pantheon As Vajrayana was mainly a product of Bengal it is probable that colonists carried their art and religion to Java and Indonesia by the sea route, probably from the sea^port atTamralipti or from Chittagong and Orissa. The Prajnaparamita image produced in the Javanese school has been acclaimed as one of the finest specimens of eastern art, ancient or modern.
After the destruction of Buddhism from India the priests of the celebrated monasteries of Bengal and Magadha who could save their heads from the hostile sword of the Muhammadans, fled to Nepal which is protected on all sides by the mighty walls of the Himalayan mountains, and took refuge in that country, and thus kept the torch of Buddhism still burning there. The Bengal school of art which was carried by the priests was soon modified into a typical Nepalese art when it came in contact with the native artists, and thus became stereotyped. But after the 18th century it became debased and crude. The general impression of the visitor who inspects the numerous monasteries in Nepal which are the repositories of Buddhist images of diverse kinds, is that the dreamy sweetness and the sublime beauty
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INTRODUCTION 41
of the Bengal school could not be preserved in Nepal, although earlier specimens of really good art are not at all wanting in the Nepal school. The followers of Vajrayana who went to Nepal in order to make sure of their existence converted a good many Newars of the land to Buddhism and carved out innumerable images of gods and goddesses in stone, metal or wood, so much so, that a student of iconography is overwhelmed at their wealth and variety. It is however curious to note that the origin of almost all the monasteries in Kathmandu, Bhatgaon, and Lalitapattan dates from the 13th century, which shows unmistakably that these monasteries were founded almost immedia^ tely after the Muhammadan conquest by the refugees fleeing from Eastern India.
The cumulative evidence of art, history, and literature leads one to believe that the pantheon of the Northern Buddhists was not widely known before the 7th century A. D. nor was the underlying philosophy, which may warrant the formation of a pantheon, well developed before that time, although the origin of it is definitely earlier. This may be explained by the fact that the Guhyasamaja which for the first time inculcated the doctrine of the five Dhyani Buddhas and their families, was composed in secret and transmitted in an occult manner for about three hundred years. This is one of the many reasons why neither the Guhyasamaja Tantra nor the Dhyani Buddhas nor the varied pantheon of Vajrayana could be widely known. It is only in the Sadhana of Asahga as included in the Sadhanamala a definite reference to the five Dhyani Buddhas and their families is to be met with, and for that reason it is not improbable to connect Asahga with the introduction of the very Guhyasamaja Tantra itself. The subsequent writers only got a glimpse of what filtered through the secret but very popular mystic organisations. After the 7th century secrecy was no longer necessary, as the principles of Vajrayana were then fully established and widely spread through the teachings and mystic songs of the Siddhas and Mahasiddhas. The beautiful images produced by the priests and artists made the teachings doubly attrac- tive. Great men came forward to advocate the cause of Vajrayana. Chairs for the study and teaching of Tantras were founded in the different and famous centres of learning such as Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramaslla and Jagaddala. Eminent scholars like Santaraksita worked as professors of Tantra in the world famous university of Nalanda.
CHAPTER I.
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS.
The pantheon of the Northern Buddhists revolves round the theory of the five Dhyani Buddhas. The Buddhists believe that the world is composed of five cosmic elements or Skandhas. The five Skandhas are Rupa (form), Vedana^ (sensation), SamjnS (name), Sahskara (conformation) and Vijnana (consciousness). These elements are eternal cosmic forces and are without a beginning or an end. These cosmic forces are deified in Vajrayana as the five Dhyani Buddhas. In the course of time they were regarded as the five primordial gods responsible for this diversified creation, and thus Vajrayana took a polytheistic form, although polytheism can hardly apply to a system which considers ounya as the One, Indivisible and Ultimate Reality. But so long as form could not be given to Sunya as an anthropomorphic deity, the system of five Dhyani Buddhas certainly had the flavour of polytheism. The priests and the Vajrayana authors were conscious of this shortcoming, especially in view of the fact that all the six Hindu systems of philosophy tended to develop a highly monistic philosophy. They tried at first to cure this defect by the theory of the Kulas (families), and Kulesas (lord of families) of gods and men, and thus divided everything into five groups. For each group, a particular Dhyani Buddha becomes the Kulesa or the primordial lord, all other groups taking their origin from him* Another grand conception of the Vajrayana Buddhism is the theory of the highest god Yajra^haira> aJ?Q, ..ffd JggL jjjkuddha, the primordial monotheistic god who is the embodiment ofSunya to whom even the Dhyani Buddhas owe their origin. The theory originated in the Nalanda monastery in about the 10th century. l Thereafter, a large number of images of Vajradhara must have been made in the different schools of art. The special Tantra dedicated to Adibuddha is the Kalacakra Tantra which appears to be the original Tantra in which the doctrine of Adibuddha was for the first time inculcated. The Kalacakra Tantra thus is a product of the 10th century. Vajradhara was particularly popular in Nepal and Tibet where numerous images
1. The idea of an Adibuddha originated in the Nalanda Monastery in the beginning of the 10th Century A.D. See JASB, Vol. II ( 1833 ) pp. 57 ff. Also Vajradhara Vs. Vajrasattva in JBORS, Vol. IX, pp. 114fF.
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 43
of this primordial god are to be met with. Alexander Csoma de Koros places the introduction of this conception of Adibuddha in Central Asia in the latter half of the 10th century* It originated at Nalanda according to him in the beginning of the 10th century, and no mention of the Adibuddha cult is made by any writer prior to this time. Homage is paid to Adibuddha in the shape of a flame of fire which the priests consider as eternal, selPbbrn ~ancT~self*existent. It is said in tHe~~Svayambhti Purana that Adibuddha first manifested himself in Nepal in the form of a flame of fire, and ManjusrI erected a temple over it in order to preserve the flame. This ancient temple is known as the Svayambhu Caitya.
The conception of Vajradhara presupposes Adibuddha and, there- fore, is later than the first half of the 10th century. Vajrasattva, being a regular development of the Bodhisattva Vajrapani emanating from the Dhyani Buddha Aksobhya, is a little earlier, although the conception of Vajradhara and Vajrasattva are sometimes inextricably mixed up. In Vajrayana, Adibuddha is regarded as the highest deity of the Buddhist pantheon, the originator even of the five Dhyani Buddhas. When represented in human form, he begets the name of Vajradhara and is conceived in two forms, single and Yab-yum. When single, he is bedecked in jewels, gaudy ornaments and dress, sits in the Vajra' paryahka or the attitude of meditation with the two feet locked with soles of the feet turned upwards. He carries the Vajra in the right hand and the Ghanta (bell) in the left, the two hands being crossed against the chest in what is known as the Vajrahuhkara Mudra (Fig 12). The Vajra (thunderbolt) here is the symbol for the ultimate reality called Sunya while the bell represnts Prajna or wisdom the sounds of which travel far and wide. Sometimes the symbols are shown on a lotus on either side, the Vajra being on the right and the Ghanta in the left (Fig 13). In Yab-yum, his form remains the same as when single except that here he is locked in close embrace by his Sakti^or the female counterpart whose name according to Getty is Prajnaparamita. The Sakti is somewhat smaller lri"sizerTs richly dressed and bedecked in ornarpents, carrying the Kartri (knife) and the Kapala (skull cup) in the right and left hands respectively (Figs. 14, 15). In these figures the Kartri is the symbol for the destruction of ignorance, the JCapala stands for oneness absolute, while the double form Yab^yum represents that the distinction between duality and non^duality is unreal, and the two mix themselves into one as salt mixes in water. The_deitv^ Vajiradhara is an embodiment ofthe Jhdghest. ^reality, , Sunya, ^jljLJE^SlP^rai^ta represents Karuna (compassion) and in close embrace they turn jntp one Sunya in which Karuna merges, and the duality ceases. Vajradhara
44 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
is widely represented in Tibet. 1
Vajradhara is described in Buddhist Tantric works and he has several forms. An important description in the Nispannayogavali is given below. This particular form of Vajradhara is three- faced and six-armed.
Vajradhara.
Colour — Reddish White. Faces — Three.
Arms— Six. . Pose— Tandava Dance.
Vajradhara is the principal deity in the Vajrasattva Mandala in the Nispannayogavali. He is described thus : —
"Kutagaragarbhe Vajradharah. . .isadraktanu-viddhasitavarnah. . .trimu- kho mla-raktasavyetaravaktrah. . . sadbhujo vajra-ghantavirajitabhuja-
bhyam alingitasvabhaprajna savyakarabhy am krpanankusavarau
vamabhyam kapalapasabhrt ardhaparyahkena navanatyarasais-
tandavl." NSP. p. 8.
"In the innermost chamber of the Mandala there is Vajradhara. His colour is reddish white. He is three-faced. The right face is blue and the left is red. He is six-armed. With the two principal hands carrying the Vajra and the Ghanta he embraces the Prajria. The two other right hands show the excellent sword and the Ankusa. In the two remaining left hands, he carries the Kapala and the noose. He stands in the Ardhaparyahka and dances the Tandava dance exhibiting the nine dramatic sentiments".
Fig. 16 represents a three- faced and six-armed Vajradhara image without the Sakti in the Baroda Museum.
But Vajradhara was not universally accepted as the Adibuddha or the first creative principle. When the theory of Adibuddha was fully established the Buddhists seem to have ranged themselves into ,so many sects as it were, holding different views regarding specific forms which the Adibuddha should take. Some considered one among the five Dhyani Buddhas as the Adibuddha, some acknowledged Vajrasattva as the Adibuddha. Many others were content to regard the Boddhisattva such as Samantabhadra or Vajrapani as the Adibuddha. Thus the cult of Adibuddha was widely distributed amongst the different 'schools, which gave rise to as many different sects amongst the Tantric Buddhists.
Vajradhara or the Adibuddha is supposed to be the originator of the five Dhyani Buddhas, the progenitors of the five Kulas or families of Buddhist gods and goddesses. Next to Vajradhara the Phyani^jBu.ddhas or the Tathagatas are important in Buddhist iconography and, therefore,
1. Getty -GNB, p. 5
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 45
requires treatment in detail. The Guhyasamaja Tantra (Tantra of Secret Communion) was the first to reveal their existence in a Sahglti (holy assembly) which is supposed to introduce new ideas into Buddhism.
In the Guhyasamaja l the Dhyani Buddhas are given a Mantra, a col- our, aSakti^a direction, and a guardian of the gate. As these Dhyani Buddhas are of primary importance in Buddhist iconography, it is nece- ssary to deal with their origin in some detail here. The Guhyasamaja opens in a grandiloquent style with the description of a monster assem- bly of gods, Tathagatas, Bodhisattvas, Saktis, and various other divine beings. The Tathagatas present in the Assembly requested the Lord Bodhicittavajra to define the Tathagatamandala or the magic circle of the five Dhyani Buddhas and in response to their request, the Lord sat in a special Samadhi (meditation) called the Jnanapradipa (lamp of know- ledge), and his whole form started resounding with the sacred sounds of VAJRADHRK which is the mantra of the Dvesa family. No sooner the words came out, the sounds transformed themselves into the concrete shape of Aksobhya with the earth-touching signal (Mudra).
Then the Lord sat in another meditation and soon became vibrant with the sacred sounds of JINAJIK, the principal mantra of the Moha family. The sounds condensed themselves into the concrete form of Vairocana with the Dharmacakra Mudra and was placed in his front in the East.
Next with a third Samadhi (meditation) the Lord became resonant with the word RATNDHRK the principal mantra of the Cintamani family and soon became condensed in the human form of Ratnaketu with his favourite signal of Varada (gift bestowing) and was placed to the south of the Lord.
The Lord thereupon took a fourth Samadhi and became resonant with the sacred sound of AROLIK, which is the principal mantra of the Vajraraga family. The vibrations soon grossened themselves in the human form of Amitabha with the signal of Dhyana (meditation) and was placed behind the Lord in the west.
Next, the Lord assumed another Samadhi and soon became resonant with the sacred sound of PRAJNADHRK, the principal Mantra of the Samaya family. The vibrations after condensation gradually assumed the shape of Amoghasiddhi with his characteristic symbol of Abhaya (assurance), and was placed by the Lord in the north.
Then the Lord sat in a series of special Samadhis, five in number, and became resonant with five different mantras. The vibrations in like
Guhyasamaja, chapter 1 is entirely devoted to the formation of the Dhyani Buddha mandala.
46 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
manner were condensed in the form of five goddesses as female counter- parts of the five Tathagatas already named and were placed in their appropriate positions.
Thus, the Lord in the first Samadhi became resonant with the sound DVESARATI which transformed itself into the form of his own queen and was placed on his own seat.
Next, he became resonant with the sound MOHARATI which took the shape of a goddess and was placed in the eastern direction as the queen of Vairocana.
Thereafter he became vibrant with the sound fRSYARATI which took the shape of a goddess and was placed in the southern direction as the queen of Ratnasambhava.
Next in another Samadhi the Lord became vibrant with the sound RAGARATI which soon took the concrete shape of a goddess and was placed in the western direction as the queen of Amitabha.
Then in a further meditation the Lord became resonant with the sound VAJRARATI which took the concrete shape of a goddess and was placed in the northern direction as the queen of Amoghasiddhi.
When all the Tathagatas were associated with their female counter- parts the Lord sat in four more meditations and through these created four guardians of gates for the four cardinal directions.
First, he sat in the Mahavairocanavajra Samadhi and became resonant with the sound YAMANTAKRT. These sound vibrations soon assumed the concrete shape of a violent deity, fearful to the Tathagatas, and was placed at the eastern gate.
Next, he became vibrant with the sound PRAJNANTAKRT. The sound vibrations soon assumed the form of a violent deity, fearful to the Vajra process, and was placed at the southern gate.
In a third Samadhi the Lord became vibrant with the sound PADMANTAKRT which soon took the form of a violent deity repre- senting the speech of the Tathagatas and was placed at the western gate.
Finally, the Lord sat in another Samadhi called the Kayavakcittavajra of the Tathagatas, and became vibrant with the sound VIGHNANTA- KRT which soon took the shape of a violent deity representing the body, speech and the mind of the Tathagatas, and was placed at the northern gate.
The above account as recorded in the Guhyasamaja Tantra marks the beginning of the theory of the five Dhyani Buddbas, their counter- parts, their mantras and the guardian of the gates. \ The five Dhyani Buddhas ar*» *hp Corner stones of Buddhist Iconography on which the whole edifice of the Buddhist pantheon is crecte^ The five Dhyani Buddhas are the progenitors of the five Kulas orramilies of deities, and the community worshipping them were known as the Kaulas, and the
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 47
process of worship was called Kulacara or family conduct. These Dhyani Buddhas further split themselves up in the form of Bodhhisattva and their female principles who are responsible for creating everything found in existence. The forms of deities are nothing but the gross forms of the different sounds, and thus the connection of the mantra with the deity is established. I
The five Dhyani Buddhas who are the embodiments of the five Skan- dhas or primordial elements are the progenitors of the five families of deities constituting the whole of the Buddhist pantheon. The emanated deities of these Dhyani Buddhas, as a rule, hold the miniature figure of the parental Dhyani Buddha on their heads and are usually of the same colour as that of the Dhyani Buddha and are placed in the same direc- tion as is assigned to their sires. This very plan is followed most scru- pulously in almost all the Mandalas or magic circles as described in the remarkable work, Nispannayogavali of Mahapandita Abhayakara Gupta. '
The names, colours and the symbols of the five Dhyani Buddhas are stated briefly in the following verse occuring in the Sadhanamala :
Jino Vairocano khyato Ratnasambhava eva ca Amitabhamoghasiddhiraksobhyasca prakirtitah Varna amisam sitah plto rakto haritamecakau Bodhyahgl Varado Dhyanam Mudra Abhaya-Bhusprsau.
Sadhanamala, p. 568-9
"The Jinas (victorious ones) are Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amita* bha, Amoghasiddhi and Aksobhya. Their colours are white, yellow, red, green and blue, and they exhibit the Bodhyahgl (teaching), Varada (boon), Dhyana (meditation), Abhaya (protection), and Bhusparsa (earth-touching) attitudes of hands respectively/'
iThe Dhyani Buddhas are a peculiar kind of Buddhas who are not required to pass through the stage of a Bodhisatta. They were never anything less than a Buddha. They are always engaged in peaceful meditation, and they voluntarily abstain themselves from the act of creation. To create is the work of their emanations, the Divine Bodhisattvas. As has been said already, the Dhyani Buddhas are five in number to which a sixth Vajrasattva is sometimes added. The Guhyasamaja Tantra makes it clear that all the five Dhyani Buddhas along with their female counterparts and the guardians of gates were known in circa 300 A. D. the time of the introduction of this new Tantra. That the five Dhyani Buddhas might have owed their origin to the theory of the eternity of the five senses, seems to be borne out by a passage in the Cittavisuddhiprakarana l of the Tantric Aryadeva. I
1. JASB, 1898. p. 178. "
48 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
But it may also be possible that the five Mudras which Buddha Sakya- simha made sacred by using on memorable occasions and which were constantly depicted in the Buddhistic figures of the different schools of art, gave rise to the five Dhy an i Buddhas (Figs 17, 18). Advayavajra who flourished in the llth century, has written in one of his short works that the five Dhyani Buddhas took their origin from the theory of the eternity of the five Skandhas (elements), that is to say, that the Dhyani Buddhas represented the five primordial cosmic forces which are responsible for creation. Vajrasattva, the sixth Dhyani Buddha, who is generally regarded as the priest of the five Dhyani Buddhas and is usually represented with the priestly symbols, the Vajra and the Ghanta, is an embodiment of the five Skandhas collectively, and un- doubtedly a later addition to the pantheon of the Northern Buddhists. The Dhyani Buddhas are always represented as seated on a full blown lotus, and in the meditative pose with legs crossed, the right foot crossing over and in front of the left, with the soles of both feet turned upwards. The hand that rests on the lap is sometimes empty, but in most cases holds the bowl. The head is bare, the thick clustering curls radiate effulgence like a flame of fire The eyes are half-closed in-meditation showing the mind completely drawn inwards in perfect introspection. The dress consists of an undergarment reaching from the chest to the knee, and secured by a scarf. The body is loosely covered by the habit of a monk, leaving only the right arm bare.
The Dhyani Buddhas are generally represented on the four sides of a Stupa which is the symbol of the Buddhist Universe, facing the foi!r cardinal points. Vairocana is the deity of the inner shrine and is, therefore, generally unrepresented. But exceptions to this lule are by no means rare. He is occasionally assigned a place between Ratnsam* bhava in the south and Aksobhya in the East. Independent shrines are also dedicated to each of the Buddhas. .
The five Dhyani Buddhas are given each a special recognition symbol and a colour. The symbols are extremely important for the purpose of iconographical studies, because the female counterparts and the wrings of the DhySni-B«ddhas invariably display these symbols in orderto sKow^theit^ origin/ 1'fius Amitabha is given the Lotus as the recognition symbol.^ His Sakti Pandara and his Bodhisatta Padmpajii must exhibit the Lotus symbol in order to show that they are the emanations of Amitabha. Similarly, all the other Dhyani Buddhas also have their own symbols and the name of the family is generally fixed from these symbols ; for instance, Amitabha is the progenitor of the Lotus family, Aksobhya is the leader of the Vajra family, Ratnasambhava is the embodiment of the Jewel family, and so forth.
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 49
The Advayavajrasangraha gave special epithets to the Dhyani Buddhas to indicate their families, although these special epithets are not known from any other source. According to this authority, Amitabha is Padmakuli, Aksobhya is Vajrakuli, Vairocana is Tathagatakull, Ratna- sambhava is Ratnakuli and Amoghasiddhi is Karmakuli. The Kula in the case of Vajrasattva is not given for the simple reason that he has neither family nor a special element.
Next to symbols, the colour of the Dhyani Buddhas is important. Each Dhyani Buddha has a special colour and this colour is required to be shown by all originating from each, Sometimes in classifying Buddhist deities there is no other sure indication of the parental Dhyani Buddha except the colour. On the ground of colour alone, and in the absence of positive mention of the parental Dhyani Buddhas, several deities have been classified in this book in this manner.
A detailed description of the Dhyani Buddhas along with their female counterparts and their offsprings, the Bodhisattvas, now follows with relevant information regarding their forms and their statues and paintings. Descriptive quotations from Tantric works have been incorporated to indicate the source of information wherever possible.]
1. AMITABHA. , ,
Colour-— Red Vehicle— Peacock /
Mudra — Samadhi Symbol — Lotus
| By far the most ancient among the Dhyani Buddhas is Amitabha who is said to reside in the Sukhavati heaven in peaceful meditation. He presides over the current Kalpa (cycle) which is Bhadrakalpa. As a Dhyani Buddha he does not create. It is his Bodhisattva Padmapani, also known as Ayalokitesvara, who is responsible for creation. The form of Amitabha is described in the Pancakara section of the Advayavajrasamgraha thus : J
"Pascimadale Ravimandalopari rakta-Hnhkarasambhuto raktavarno Amitabhah padmacihnah samadhimudradharah samjnaskandhasvabhavo ragasarirah sukratmakah padmakull pratyaveksanajnanalaksano gris^ marturupaha mlarasasarlrah tavargatma pradosavan". ADV. p. .41
V'On the western petal on the disc of the sun there is Amitabha of red colour originating from the red syllable Hnh. | He has a lotus as his sign and he exhibits the Samadhi Mudra in his two hands. He is of the nature of the cosmic element of Samjna (name), is an embodi* ment of attachment and belongs to the Lotus family. He stands for the vital fluid, and is endowed with the Pratyaveksana (looking after) 7
50 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
knowledge. He represents the summer season and the acid taste. He presides over the group of letters beginning with Ta (cerebrals) and rules over the evening twilight".
When represented on the Stupa, he always faces the West and the Nepalese Buddhists regard him as the fourth Dhyani Buddha. His two hands with palm open lie on his lap, one upon the other forming the Dhyana or the meditative mudra. His colour is red and his Vahana is a pair of peacocks. His recognition symbol is the Lotus.
Images, sculptures, paintings and drawings of this description are found in all Buddhist countries including India, Tibet and China. \ One miniature painting of the Dhyani Buddha is reproduced in Fig. 19. Besides the two-armed form various other forms are known of this and other Dhyani Buddhas. It may be remembered here that all the five miniatures reproduced here belong to the collection of Dr. Evans* Wentz.
* Amitabha images are found in abundance in Tibet 1 and in China 2 [
PANDARA
I ' Colour — Red Symbol — Lotus
| Pandara is also called Pandaravasini. According to a Dhyana in the Advayavajrasahgraha she belongs to the Lotus family which is also the family of the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. Pandara thus is the"~spiritual consort of Amitabha. \Her form and nature are des* cribed as under : — |
"Vayavyam candramandalopari Parhkarabljasambhuta Pandarava* sini rakta raktavarna padmacihna tejodhatusvarupa padmakula ragarakta." ADV. p. 43.
"In the Vayu corner on the orb of the moon there is Panda- ravasini originating from the ( red ) germ syllable Parh. I She is red in colour and has the Padma ( lotus ) as her recognition symbol. She is the embodiment of the element of Fire. She belongs to the Lotus family and is full of attachment."
• Images and paintings of this goddess are rare. She is however known in Nepal in paintings, and some of her sfejuettes are found in China A Fig 20 illustrates a Nepalese drawing of the goddess. ^
Pandara is represented in Tibet 3 and China 4. The illus" trations of drawings of all the five Buddhasaktis, Pandara and
1. Gordon : ITL p. 27. Getty— GNB. pp. 38, 39.
2. Clark : TLP, II. pp. 32, 57, 142.
3. Getty : GNB p. 139.
4- Clark : TLP, II, under the name of Pandaravasini, pp. 61, 106, 152,164.
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 51
others are reproduced from Wright's Hutory of Nepal, Plate VI. These drawings are made by Nepalese painters.
PADMAPANI. If
Colour — Red Symbol— Lotus '(
I Padmapani is the Bodhisattva attached to the Padma ( lotus ) family which is presided over by the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha whose spiritual consort is Pandara or Pandaravasim. The Lotus is the symbol of this family and the colour assigned to this family is red. The Bodhisattva Padmapani begets the red colour and a full*blown lotus as his symbol. Padmapani is fairly well represen- ted in the Buddhist countries of the North including Tibet l and China./ One of his images is illustrated in Fig. 21 2.
2. AKSOBHYA.
Colour — Blue Mudra— Bhusparsa
Vehicle — Elephant Symbol — Vajra •
Next in importance and antiquity is the Dhyani Buddha Aksobhya whcTlsHnientioned as a Tathagata in the smaller recension of the Amitayus Sutra which was translated into Chinese between A. D, 384 and 417. Aksobhya is regarded as the Second Dhyani Buddha by the Nepalese Buddhists. His description appears almost everywhere in Tantric literature. The Paficakara section of the Advayavajrasangraha perhaps gives the best description thus :
^Suryamandalastha-nlla-Humkaranispanno dvibhuja ekamukho Bhu-
sparsamudradharo vajraparyankl vijnanaskandhasvabhavah
vajrakuli sisiramadhyahnakatusruti'akasasabda-cavargo Aksobhya-
vi£uddhah". ADV. p. 40-41.
| Aksobhya originates from the blue syllable Hum which is placed on the orb of the sun. He is two-armed and one-faced, exhibits the Bhusparsa (earth-touching] mudrf and sits in the Vajraparyanka (adama"ntineleat) pose. He represents the primordial cosmic element of Vijnana ( consciousness ). He is the embodiment of the Vajra family and represents the winter season, noon-time, pungent taste, faculty of hearing, the element of Ether and Sound and the Ca (palatal) group of letters".- J
\Images, sculptures, statuettes and paintings of Aksobhya of this description are to be met with everywhere in Buddhist countries especially of the North. When represented in the Stupa he always
1. Getty : GNB. ppt 61, 62
2. This and other illustrations of the five Dhyani Bodhisattvas are in full- size bronzes. All these are to be found in the U Vahal in Nepal.
52 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
faces the East. His left hand rests on the lap while the right Crests on the~nght knee with the tips of the fingers touching the ground with palm drawn inwardly. JffisJVahana is a pair of elephants and his recognition symbol is the Vajra or the thunderbolt.
Various other forms of Aksobhya are found in Tantric works,
some four^armed, some six-armed, some standing and some sitting,
some single and some in Yab-yumj| Some two-armed specimens are
reproduced here (Figs. 22, 23).
, /He is popular in Tibet 1 and China
(ii) Colour — Blue Arms — Eight
Aksobhya is the principal deity in the Aksobhya Mandala according to Pindlkrama in the Nispannayogavall. He is described thus :
"Aksobhyah krsno raudrah sitaraktasavyetaramukhah savyakaraih kulacakrapadmani vamair-ghanta-Cintamani-khadgan vibhranah svabha- £parsavajralingitah". NSP. p. 5!
| "Aksobhya is blue in colour and is angry-looking. The colour of his right face is white and that of the left is red. He holds in his right hands the Vajra (family symbol), the discus and the lotus. In the three left hands he carries the bell, the Cintamani jewel and the sword. With the two principal hands he embraces the Prajna Sparsavajra by name", j
( , MAMAKI
1 Colour— Blue Symbol — Vajra
* According to a Dhyana in the Advayavajrasafigraha, Mamaki belongs to the Vajra family and thus she is the spiritual consort of the Dhyani Buddha Aksobhya, the embodiment of the Vajrakula. |The description is given below : f
* Nairrtyarh candramandalopari krsna-Mam-karabijasambuta Ma- maki krsnavarna krsnavajracihna abdhatusvabhava Vajrakula dve* sarakta"! ADV. p. 4!
"On the orb of the Moon in the Nairrta corner there is Mamaki originating from the blue germ syllable Mam. \ She is blue in colour and has the blue Vajra as her recogntion symbol. She is the embodi- ment of the element of Water and she belongs to the Vajra family. She is full of enmity", f
Mamaki is very rarely represented. There are Nepalese drawings of this goddess J of which one specimen is reproduced here (Fig 24). She is known in Tibet and China.f
1. Gordon : ITL, p. 104 ; Getty : GKB, pp. 36, 37.
2. Clark: TLP, II, pp. 126, 129, 138, 244.
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 53
VAJRAPANL
y
Colour — Blue Symbol — Vajra
I The Bodhisattva Vajrapani with the Vajra symbol is the spiritual son of the Dhyani Buddha Aksobhya who is the progenitor of the Vajra family. His spiritual mother is Mamakl. Vajrapani, when represented, either stands or sits and carries usually^ lotus on which is placed the family symbol of Vajra. Sometimes he holds the Vajra against the chest in one of his hands/ Some images of his are illus- trated here (Figs. 25, 26, 27).
£ He is known and widely represented in Tibet l and China 2 J
3. VAIROCANA
Colour— White Mudra — Dharmacakra
Vahana — Dragon Symbol — Discus
f Vairocana is mentioned along with the other Dhyani Buddhas in the Guhysamaja which is dated circa 300 A.D. He is regarded as the oldest^ ^^ t'le ^rst Dhyani Buddha by the Nepalese Buddhists and His place is in the sanctum of the Stupa where he is the master of the whole temple and its contents. Naturally, therefore, he cannot be represented outside the Stupa, but exception to this rule is frequently met with in the important stupas of Nepal where he is assigned a place between Aksobhya in the East and Ratnasambhava in the South. His form is frequently described in Tantric works, but the description occuring in the Pancakara section of the Advayavajrasahgraha is full. It is given below : |
"Purvadale candramandalopari Omkarajah Suklavarna*Vairocanah suklacakracihnah Bodhyahgl-mudradharah rupaskandhasvabhavah mohasvarupo vitavisuddhah tathagatakuli adarsatvena pratisthitah Hemantartuvisuddhah madhurarasasarlrah Kavargavyapl prabhatasan- dhyatmak§yasvabhavah". ADV. p. 41
Vj'Vairocana originates from the white syllable Om placed on the orb of the moon on the eastern petal of the lotus and is white in colour. His recognition symbol is the white Discus. He exhibits the Bodhyafigl mudra and represents the cosmic element of Rupa (Form). He is of the nature of Moha (delusion) and is without bad companions, he is the embodiment of the Tathagata family, and is established as an embodiment of Adarsa (ideal) knowledge. He represents the Hemanta season, the sweet taste, the Ka (guttural) group of letters, and the mornings and evenings of the day". \
1. Getty : GNB. p. 51
2* Clark : TLP. II. pp. 8, 11, 56, 197, 201.
54 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
When represented, Vairocana is white in colour, and his two hands are held against the chest with the tips of the thumb and forefinger of each hand united. His Vahana is a pair of Dragons or gryphons and his recognition symbol is shown to be the Cakra or the Disc.
Instead of two, he may have many arms, and such descriptions are also met with in the Nispannayogavall./ Some of his two-armed images are reproduced here (Figs 28, 29). / His images are found in Tibet l and China a /
( ii ) Colour — White Faces — Four
Arms — Eight
When Vairocana is four-faced and eight-armed he is called Vajra- dhatu and in this form he is described in the Vajradharu Mandala of the Nispannayogavall with the following words :
"Vairocano vajraparyankena nisannah subhrah sita-pita-rakta- harita^caturvaktro astabhujah savyavamabhyam dhrtasavajrabodhyangi- mudro* parabhyam dhrtadhyanamudro daksinabhyam aksamalasara- dharo vamabhyarh cakracapabhrt". NSP. p. 44-
"Vairocana is seated in Vajraparyahka and is white in colour. His four faces show white, yellow, red and green colours. I He is eight- armed. With the two principal hands holding the Vajra he exhibits the Bodhyahgl or the Dharmacakra mudra. With the second pair of hands he shows the Dhyana mudra. The two remaining right hands hold the rosary and the airow, and with the two remaining left he carries the discus and the bow". |
Vajradhatu Buddha is mentioned in the Chinese collection1. The Chinese figure corresponds with the description given here and is illustrated in Fig 30.
LOCANA.
Colour— White Arms— Two
Symbol — Discus
The Dhyani Buddhas are a]J associated with their Sakti or female counterpart and an offspring or Bpdhisattva. They fall into a separate group of five or six if Vajra$attva is added. Locana belongs to the Tathagata family to which the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana also belongs. Thus Locana is the, Sakti or the female counterpart of the Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, f A short Dhyan^ in the Advayavajrasahgraha describes her form thus ; [
1. Gordon : ITL. p. 51 ; Getty: GNB, p. 34.
2. Clark -TLP, II, pp 12, 57. 3.' Clark : TIP. Vol. II, p. 115
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 55
"Agneyakonadale candramandalopari sukla-Lom-karaja suklavarna Locana cakra-cihna prthvidhatusvarupa Tathagatakulodbhava mo* harakta". ADV. p. 42
"On the disc of the moon on the petal in the Agni corner there is Locaria originating from the white germ syllable Lom. J She is white. in colour, bears the recognition symbol of the discus, and is the embodi- "1*1 em of t h e cosimc~eIenSnF"bT Earth. She belongs to the Tathagata fanuTy^anHTs steeped in delusion".
Paintings and sculptures of this goddess are rare, | A Nepalese draw- ing of the goddess is reproduced here in Fig. 31 Locana is represented in Tibet. *
SAMANTABHADRA Colour — White Symbol — Cakra
I The Dhy ani Buddhas are the progenitors of the different families and they have each a spiritual consort and spiritual son. These spiri- tual sons are called the Bodhisattvas. The Bodhisattvas bear the same colour, and the same recognition symbol whether they sit or stand. The Bodhisattva with the Cakra symbol is Samantabhadra and is thus affiliated to the Dhayani Buddha Vairocana with the Cakra symbol. He belongs to the Tathagata Kula. When represented,! he either stands erect or sits in different sitting attitudes, such as Dhyana, Lalita or Bhadra poses on a full-blown lotus. He usually holds the stem of a lotus on which the family symbol, the Cakra, is shown.
Samantabhadra is known in Tibet 2 and China ;i and is frequently represented in the Buddhist countries of the North. | One of his images is illustrated here in Fig. 32.
4. AMOGHASIDDHI. Colour — Green Mudra — Abhaya
Vahana — Garuda Symbol — Visvavajra
VThe Nepalese Buddhists consider him to be the Fifth Dhyani Buddha in order. His left hand lies open on the lap and the right exhibits the Abhaya ( protection ) mudra. His form is des- cribed in many places in Tantric works I but the one appearing in the Advayavajrasahgraha appears to be the best and i$ quoted below : t
"Uttaradale suryamandalopari syama-Kham-karajah syamavarno- 'moghasiddhih visva-vajracihnabhayamudradharah Samskaraskandha-
1. Getty; GNB, p. 139.
2. Getty ; GNB. p- 47. ». Clark ; TIP, II, pp. 8, 9, 52, 133
56 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
avabhavo Varsarturupah [Karmakull] pisitap(s?)ahtiktaras§tmakah pavargavisuddhah ardharatrasvabhavah." ADV. p. 41-42
"Amoghasiddhi originates from the green syllable Kharh placed on the orb of the sun on the northern petal of the lotus, and is of green colour. /His recognition symbol is the Visvavajra or
^> 1C '""(-, ,
the double thunderbolt. He exhibits the Abhaya ( protection ) mudra and represents the cosmic element of Samskara ( confor- ritotion ). He is the embodiment of the rainy season and is a demon by nature ; [ he belongs to the Karma family ] and he represents the bitter taste, the Pa (labial) group of letters and the middle part of the night."
When represented, his colour is green and he always faces the North. His Vahana is a pair of Garudas and his recognition symbol is the Visvavajra or the double conventional thunderbolt. Sometimes a serpent with seven hoods forms the background and an umbrella. In front of his shrine, therefore, is found a small square pit which is meant for the snake
Statues and paintings of this Dhyani Buddha are found in large numbers in all Buddhist countries especially of the North* Some of them are reproduced here (Figs. 33, 34 ). } He is popular in Tibet * and China af
TARA. Colour — Green Symbol — Utpala
| Tara also called Tarim according to a Dhyana found in the PancSkara section of the Advayavajrasahgraha belongs to the Karma family to which evidently the Dhyani Buddha Amogha- siddhi is also associated. The green colour of Tara also suggest: that she is the spiritual consort of Amoghasiddhi of green colour Her form and nature are given in the following passage :
"Atsanyarh candramandalopari kanakasyama-Tarh karaparinata TarinI syamavarna syamamlotpalacihna vayudhatusvarupa Karmakula Irsyarakta." ADV. p. 43.
"In the Isana corner on the orb of the moon there is TSrim originating from the germ syllable Tarn of golden green colour Her recognitipn_ symbol is a green night lotus. She is the embodiment of the element of Air/ SKe belongs to family and is full of jealousy." 1
1, Gordon: ITL, p. 27 , Getty: GNB. p. 42.
I. Clark: TLP, II, pp. 32, 56, 115, 126, 128, 138, 144.
57
Fig. 12 ADI-BUDDHA, VAJRADHARA,
( From a Nepalese Painting )
58
Fig. 13 Vajradhara ( Baroda Museum )
Fig. 14 Vajradhara Yab-yum ( Nepal )
Fig, 15 Vajradhara Yal>yum ( Side View )
Fig. 16 Vajradhara (Six-armed) ( Baroda Museum )
59
Fia. 17 Buddha in different Muuia* (
Fig* 18 Buddha in ( Java )
Fig. 19 Amitlhha,
Fig, 20 Pandara,
Fig. 21 Padmapani ( Nef?al
Fig. 22 Aksobhya.
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DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 73
The same remarks apply to her images and paintings which are rare in India* One specimen of her images is illustrated here (Fig. 35 ), In Tibet1 and China2 she is widely known.
VISVAPANI Colour — Green Symbol — Visvavajra. i
Visvapani, as the name indicates, is the holder of the Visvavajra or the double thunderbolt which is the symbol of the Dhyani Buddha Amoghasiddhi, whose spiritual consort is Tar a or Tarim. They all belong to what is called the Karmakula to which the green colour is assigned. Visvapani thus is green in colour and shows the Visvavajra on a lotus. When represented, he may. stand erect or sit in different sitting postures. His images are sometimes found, and one specimen is illustrated here ( Fig 36 ). Visvapani is known in Tibet r>
5. RATNASAMBHAVA. Colour — Yellow Mudra — Varada
Vahana — Lion Symbol — Jewel !
I The Nepalese Buddhists regard him as the Third Dh>uni Buddha in order, and the earliest mention of his name may be found in the Guhyasamaja which is believed to have been composed circa 300 A.D. He is the progenitor of the Ratnakula, and is described widely in the Buddhist Tantric works. Out of all descriptions the one given in the Pancakara section of the Advayavajrasahgraha is perhaps the besty Here Ratnasambhava is described as under : — J
"Daksinadale suryamandalopari TranVkarajah pitavarno Ratnasam- bhavo ratnacihnavaradamudradharo vedanasvabhava'piiunasanrah rak- tatmako ratnakull samatajnanavan vasantarturupo lavanasanrah Tavar- gavyap! trtlyacaturtliapraharatmakah". ADV, p. 41.
^"Ratnasambhava originates from the yellow syllable Train placed on the orb of the sun on the southern petal./ He is yellow in cqlour* his recognitiqn symbol is the jewel and he exhibits the Varada (gift" bSstnwing) Mudra. He represents the cosmic element of VedanS (sensation) and is the embodiment of slander (pisuna). He presides over the blood in the human system, and belongs to the Ratna (jewel) family of deities. He possesses the knowledge of Samata (equality) and presides over the spring season, the saline taste, the Ta (dental) group of letters and the third and fourth parts of the day and night", \
1. Getty : GNB, p. 127 2 Clark: TLP, II, pp. 60, 107, 171.
3. Getty: GNB, p. 10 i 10
74 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
When represented, his colour is yellow* and he alwayvS faces the South. His left hand rests on the lap with "opeiTpalm, and the TTgBt 'exhibits the Varada Mudra or the gift bestowing attitude. His Vahana is a pair of lions, and theTCTOgnition symbol is the Jewel (Ratnacchata),
He may have more arms than two and in such forms he is described in^lhe Nispannaybgavali. ~Such forms alre also represented iti art."f"Some oT"his two-armed forms are only illustrated here (Figs 37, 38), \ He is widely known and represented in Tibet 1 and China -./
^ , VAJRADHATVI&VARI
J Colour — Yellow Symbol — Jewel
/ Vajradhatvisvarl, according to a statement in the Advayavajrasam* graha is the deity of the centre surrounded by the four Buddhasaktis, bocana, Tara, Pandara, and MamakL She is said to be the embodi- ment of the highest truth in Mahayana Buddhism which is named differently as Tathata, Sunyata, Frajnaparamita and so forth :t. Vajradhatvisvan thus can be taken as the spiritual consort of Ratna- sambhava only, with the yellow colour and the jewel as symbol.
Images and paintings of this deity are still rarer than those of the other Buddhasaktis. / One of her Nepalese paintings is illustrated here (Fig 39). / She is known in Tibet *./
; , RATNAPANI
i /
/ ' Colour — Yellow Symbol— Jewel
Ratnapani, as the name signifies, belongs to the Ratnakula which is presided over by the Dhyani Buddha Ratnasambhava, whose spiritual consort is Vajradhatvisvan. Ratnapani is of the same nature as the Dhyani Buddha and when represented, he either stands erect, or sits in different sitting postures. He
stalk of a lotus on which appears the" Kula symbol hefe~thne Jewel (Ratnacchata). He is represented sparingly in the BuddTiist Countries of "the North, and a metal image of his found in Nepal is illustrated here (Fig 40). Ratnapani is known and represented in Tibet 5.
6. VAJRASATTVA. Colour — White Symbols — Vajra and Ghanta
( Vajrasattva, the Sixth Dhyani Buddha, is regarded by the Nepal Buddhists as the priest of the Five Dhyani Buddhas. He is not repre-
1. Getty : GNB, p. 37. 2. Clark : TLP, II, pp. 32, 57 119, 126.
3* ADV, p. 43. 4- Getty : GNB, p. 139.
5. Getty ; GNB, p 53, 54
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 75
sented in the Stupa like the other Dhyani Buddhas, but independent shrines are dedicated to his worship. His worship is always performed in secret and is not open to those who are not initiated into the mys- teries of Vajrayana. Vajrasattva is represented in two forms, single and Yub-yum.
The notable feature of this Dhyani Buddha is that he wears all ornaments, rich dress and a crown instead of the poor dress of the other Dhyani Buddhas consisting of three rags (tricivara). Thus Vajrasattva appears more to be a Bodhisattva than a Dhyani Buddha.
He sits cross-legged in the meditative pose like the other Dhyani Buddhas, and exhibits no special Mudra. He carries the Vajra in his right hand with palm upwards against the chest and the Ghanta (Bell) in the left hand resting against the left thigh. His form is repeatedly described in Tantric works. jThe description given in the Advaya- vajrasafigraha is typical and is quoted below :
"Vajrasattvastu Hurhkarajanma suklo dvibhuja ekavaktro vajra- vajraghantadharo Kasayarasasanrah saradrtuvisuddho Yaralavadyatma- kah ardharatratah prabhatakalaparyanto Dharmadhatuparanama",
ADV, p. 41.
"Vajrasattva originates from the syllable HUM and is white in colour. He is two-armed and one-faced and holds in his two hands the Vajra and Vajra-marked Ghanta. |He represents the as- tringent taste, the Autumn season, the letters of the alphabet ya, ra, la, and va, and the part of the night from midnight to day-break. His second name is Dharmadhatu". \
I When represented singly, he is exhibited before the public. The Yab"yum form is generally kept" secret. When represented in Yab- yumV'he is closely associated with his Sakti who is generally known as Vajrasattvatmika. He carries the Vajra and the Ghanta in the same manner as when single, but the Sakti holds the Kartri in the right hand and the Kapala in the left (Figs. 41, 42). *
* He is represented widely in all Buddhist countries of the North. Some of his single and Yab-yum forms are illustrated here (Figs. 43,44)* 'His white colour suggests that his spiritual sire is Vairocana of white colour. His position amongst the Dhyani Buddhas is anomalous. Vajrasattva is widely represented in Tibet l and China f
I. Getty : GNB, p. 6
2; Clark :TLP. II. p. 138.
76 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
VAJRASATTVATMIKA.
Colour — White Symbol — Kartri and Kapala
Arms — Two
/ As all the Dhyani Buddhas have a Sakti each attached to them, even so the Sixth Dhyani Buddha Vajrasattva also can claim a Sakti. Vajrasattvatmika thus is the spiritual consort of the Sixth Dhyani Buddha Vajrasattva. Hejr Dhyana is rarely found, in.. Tan- trie literature, but her form can Tie seen from the images where she is in close embrace with Vajrasattva in Yab-yum. In such cases she carries the Kartri in the right hand and Kapala in the left. /
GHANTAPANI Colour — White Symbol — Ghanta
The Sixth Dhyani Buddha Vajrasattva and his consort Vajrasa- ttvatmika claim Ghantapani as their Bodhisattva. The recognition symbol of this Bodhisattva is the Ghanta or the Bell Like his spiritual sire he must be white in colour. Ghantapani is rarely represented, and his images are very rare in Buddhist countries.
MORTAL BUDDHAS"
Both the Mahayanists and the Hmayanists hold that a Buddha is one who is endowed with the thirty-two major and eighty mi- nor auspicious marks known as "external characteristics" as enu- merated in the Dharmasarhgraha, attributed to Nagarjuna. He must have in addition, three kinds of mental characteristics, namely, the ten Balas or forces, eighteen Avenika Dharmas or peculiar proper- ties, and the four Vaisaradyas or points of self-confidence or assurance.
The Hmayanists, even in their earlier stages, recognised four bygone Buddhas, each having a peculiar Bodhi tree. Mahayanists also give several lists, though not systematically and thirtyjjwp different names have been recovered. The last seven Jathagatas are well known, and are designated by the Mah§yani* sts aT^MTOtlsi or^ Mortal Buddhas. These are, Vipasyin, Sikhi, Visvabhu, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa and Sakyasimha. The historicity of these Buddhas is still uncertain excepting of course that of the last, but there are good grounds for thinking that Kanakamuni and Krakucchanda really w^re^ historical personages*
Attempts have been made to establish a fantastic connection between the last five Mortal Buddhas and the five Dhyani Buddhas and their Bodhisattvas by holding that the Divine Bodhisattvas
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 77
discharge their duties of creation through the agency of the five portal Buddhas. The theory may be current in Tibet ; it may ingeniously establish a new connection and may find strong support from scholars, but it is against all Tantric traditions of India.
When represented, the last seven Mortal Buddhas appear all alike ; I they are of one colour and one form, usually sitting cross-legged, with the right hand disposed in the Bhumigparsa
touching attitude)", which is^the MudrOpeculiar to Aksobhya and as^a matter ot t'act, it is not possible to identify a sculpture of the latter unless it is coloured or if no other identification mark is present. In paintings, the Mortal Buddhas have -usually a yellow or golden complexion. The only possible chance of identifying them is when they appear in groups of seven.1
Sometimes they are represented as standing, in which case they appear under a distinguishing Bodhi Tree and with a distinguish- ing Mudra. The Indian Museum image No* B, G, 83 (Fig. 45) is an image of this kind. It may be noted, however, that Maitreya, the future Buddha, has been added to this group.
VAJRASANA
Gautama, the last of the group of the seven Mortal Buddhas, is widely represented both in sculptures and in paintings. His images date from a period anterior to the birth of Christ and the fascination of Indian sculptors for Buddha images seems never to have diminished. Innumerable images of Buddha in innumerable attitudes and with, innumerable expressions have been discovered in India, as in those other countries which came under the influ- ence of Buddhism, Images of Buddha, therefore, are an indepen- dent study by themselves.
The Sadhanamala furnishes us with several descriptions of Buddha Vajrasana sitting in the Vajraparyahka attitude, with his right hand displaying the Bhumisparsa pose. The Dhyana, as given in one of the Sadhana is quoted below :
"Savyakarena Bhusparsamudram utsahgasthitavasavyahastam kiisaya- vastravagunthanam mlagauraraktasyamacatur-Maropari visva-padmavaj- rSvasthitarh santam laksanavyanjanenanvitagatram. Tasya Bhagavato daksine Maitreya^Bodhisattvam gauram dvibhujarh jatamukutinam savyakarena camararatnadharinam avasavyena nagakesarapuspacchata^ dharinam, Tatha vamato Lokesvarram suklam daksinakarena cama-
1* Colossal images of the Seven Mortal Buddhas representing them with the Bhu- mi^parla mudra appear in one of cave temples at Ellora. Fergusson and Burgess: Cave Templet of India, p. 383.
78 , BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
radhararh vamakarena kamaladhararh Bhagavanmukhavlokanajparau ca tau bhavayet.
Iti Vajrasanasadhanarh samaptam"
Sadhanamala, p. 24-
"The worshipper should meditate himself as (Vajrasana) who dis* plays the Bhusparsa Mudra in his right hand while the left rests on the lap. He is dressed in red garments and sits on the Vajra- marked double lotus placed on the four Maras of blue, white, red and green colour. He is peaceful in appearance and his body is endowed with all the major and minor auspicious marks,
'To the right of the God is Maitreya Bodhisattva who is white, two^armed, and wears the Jatamukuta (crown of matted hair), and carries the chowrie-Jewel in the right hand, and the Nagakesara flower in the left.
"Similarly, to the left of the principal God is Lokesvara of white complexion, carrying in his right hand the chowrie and the lotus in the left.
'These two gods should be meditated upon as looking towards the face of the (principal) god
"Here ends the Sadhana for Vajrasana"
Images of this divinity are found in overwhelming numbers in almost all Buddhist centres in India. The Indian Museum image (Fig. 46) is an example of this form of Gautama.
Buddha Sakyasirhha was conceived in another form which was called by the name of Durgatiparisodhana. This particular form of Sakya*- simha is described in the Nispannayogavali of Abhayakara Gupta.
DURGATIPARISODHANA.
Colour — Yellow Face— One Arms — Two Mudra — Dharamacakra
Sakyasimha, the embodiment of Mahavairocana, is the principal deity in the Durgatiparisodhana Mandala of the Nispannayogavali. He has been described in a short sentence :
"Cakrasya vedyam visvasarojasthasimhopari snoakyasirhhoBhagavan Mahavairocanah suvarnavarno dhrtadharmacakramudrah,
"NSP, p. 66.
"On the centre of the wheel on a lion placed on a double lotus sits the god Sri Sakyasimha, the embodiment of Mahavairocana of golden yellow colour, dispalying in his two hands the Dharmacakra Mudra".
Nepalese paintings of the deity are available, but sculptures are hot recorded anywhere, , ^
DHYANI AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 79
MORTAL BUDDHA&AKTIS
Like the Dhyani Buddhas, the Mortal Buddhas have also their res- pective Buddhasaktis through whom they obtained the seven Mortal Bodhisattvas. The Buddhasaktis are : —
1. Vipasyanti 4. Kakudvatl
2. SikhimalinI 5. Kanthamalini
3. Visvadhara 6. Mahidhara
7. Yasodhara
Representation of these are not met with anywhere in India. Only one Statuette of the last Yasodhara is found in China * .
MORTAL BODHISATTVAS
They were brought into existence by their respective Mortal Buddhas and their Saktis. They are : —
1. Mahamati 4« Sakamangala
2. Ratnadhara 5. Kanakaraja
3. A k a s a g a n j a 6. Dharmadhara
7. A n a n d a L>
The names of Yasodhara and Ananda are familiar names, the former being the name of Sakyasimha's wife and the latter that of his favourite disciple.
The relation between the Mortal Buddhas, their Buddhasaktis and the Bodhisattvas may be thus shown in a tabular form : —
|
Mortal Buddha |
Mortal Buddhasakti |
Mortal Bodhisattva |
|
Vipasyi Visvabhu Krakucchanda Kanakamuni Kasyapa Sakyasimha |
Vipasyanti SikhimalinI Visvadhara Kakudvatl Kanthamalini Mahidhara Yasodhara |
Mahamati Ratnadhara Akasaganja Sakamangala Kanakaraja Dharmadhara Ananda N*^,.^- |
|
L Clark: TLP, II, p. 171. from Nfoal, Vo. If. 163 2* Oldfield : Sketches from |
Vw %r* For the names of the Buddhasaktis see>OidfiftB : Batches and 185 ff. Vs. \ / Ni0a/;VoL II. pp. 163 and 185 ffS, Cr^ |
80 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
MAITREYA, THE FUTURE BUDDHA.
It would not be out of place to mention here the name of Maitreya who partakes of the nature of a Mortal Buddha, though he is not a Buddha yet. He is supposed to be passing the life of a Bodhisattva in the Tusita heaven, preparatory to his descent to earth in human form. It is said that he will come to earth full 4000 years after the disappearance of Buddha Gautama for the deliverance of all sentient beings. Asahga is said to have visited Maitreya in the Tusita heaven and to have been initiated by him into the mysteries of Tantra. He is the only Bodhisattva who is worshipped alike by the Hinayanists and the Mahayanists and his images can be traced from the Gandhara School down to the present time/ Hiuen Tsang records the existence of Maitreya in Udyana (U-chang-na). The sculptor, in order to ascertain his correct form, is believed to have gone several times to the Tusita heaven before carving it.
Maitreya may be represented as a standing figure, adorned with rich ornaments and holding in his right hand the stalk of a lotus He is distinguished from Padmapani mainly by the figure of a small Caitya which he bears on his crown. Getty remarks that in Indian sculpture he shows in his hands the usual Dharmacakramu- dra ; in the left there is a vase, round, oval or pointed, or there may be the stems of flowers which support his two characteristic symbols, the vase and the wheel. Maitreya may also be represen- ted seated as a Buddha, with legs either interlocked or dangling down. His colour is yellow, and his images sometimes bear the figures of the five Dhyani Buddhas, on the aureole behind. The small Caitya on the crown of Maitreya is said to refer to the belief that a Stupa in the mount Kukkutapada near Bodh-Gaya covers a spot where Kasyapa Buddha is lying. When Maitreya would descend to earth he would go direct to the spot, which would open by magic, and receive from Kasyapa the garments of a Buddha.
The Sadhanamala furnishes us with only one description of Maitreya as a principal divinity and several others in which he is represented as a minor god. When as a minor god, he accompa- nies others, he generally carries the chowrie in the right hand and the Nagakesara flower in the left. The Sadhana describing the procedure of his worship has Dhyana :
DHYAN1 AND MORTAL BUDDHAS 81
Pita* MamYkaraparina tarn visvakamalasthitam trimukham
caturbhujarh krsnasukladaksinavamamukham suvarnagauram sattvaparyahkinam vyakhyanamudradharakaradvayam aparadaksi* navamabhujabhyam varadapuspitanagakesaramanjarldharam
nanalahka radharam atmanam Maitreyarupam aiambya
Maitreyasadhanam. Sadhanamala, p. 560.
"The worshipper should meditate himself as Maitreya who ori- ginates from the yellow germ syllable "Maim". He is three-faced three-eyed, and four-armed. His right and left faces respectively are of blue and white colour. His complexion is yellow like that of gold. He sits in the Paryanka attitude on an animal His two hands are engaged in exhibiting the Vyakhyana Mudra and he shows in his other right and left hands the Varada Mudra and a full-blown Nagakesara flower with its branches He is decked in many ornaments. Meditating thus ..
This is the Sadhana for Maitreya.''
A Nepalese drawing (Fig. 47) represents 'this form of Maitreya which follows the Dhyana in all .details except the vehicle. Maitreya is popular in Tibet1 and his images are found in abundance in China1',
1. Gordon : ITL, pp. 104, 107; Getty : GNB, pp. 22, 23.
2. Clark : TLP, II, pp. 1, 9, 59, 143, 195. 11
CHAPTER II
THE BODHISATTVAS
I The term Bodhisattva consists of two words Bodhi (enlightenrrent) and Sattva (essence) and they represent a class of deities who derive their origin from the five Dhyani Buddhas representing the five primor- dial elements. The Bodhisattvas 'thus connote all the ryale deities of the Buddhist pantheon, while their female counterparts are known by the generic name of Saktis. These Saktis should be distinguished from the Buddhasaktis who are fhe queens of the five Dhyani Buddhas-. The Bodhisattvas are sometimes represented in the company ot their Saktis who are seated either beside them or on their laps or in close embrace. Although all the male deities of the Buddhist pantheon can be called the Bodhisattvas, they are ncveitheless separated in icono- graphic studies as an independent group. Thus, in the Nispannayogavali, three distinct groups of sixteen Bodhisattvas are mentioned and it is necessary to refer to them here along with their iconography as found in this excellent book. Amongst the Bodhisattvas, Avalokitesvara ai^Maniyin are the chief and have wide popularity not only in this country, but also in other Buddhist countries such as Tibet, China and Japan.! As the images of Avalokitesvara and Manjusri are found in <rlt~ these countries in large numbers and in a wide variety of forms they require obviously a separate treatment in subsequent chapters. The Nispannayogavall of Mahapandita Abhayakara Gupta men- tions altogether ihree sets1 of sixteen Bodhisattvas. Some names occur in one or two or all the three lists, which when analysed, give an account of twenty-five Bodhisattvas in all. These three lists are headed in one by Samantabhadra and in two others by Maitreya, the Future Buddha. Images of many of these Bodhisa- ttvas are found in India, but their number is the largest in China as would be seen in the Two Lamaistic Pantheons by Walter Eugene Clark. The three lists as given by Abhayakara Gupta are stated below for facility of comparison, before the Bodhisattvas are actually described with the help of the Dlvyanas.
List No. 1 Samantabhadra, Aksavamati, Ksirigarbha, Akasagarbha, Ganganaganja, Ratnapani, Sagaramati, Vajragarbha, Avalokitesvara, Mahasthamaprapta, Chandraprabha, Jalimprabha, Amitaprabha, Pra- tibhankuta, Sarvasokatamonirghatamati, Sarvanivaranaviskambhin.
1. NSP, pp. 46, 50, 67.
THE BODHISATTVAS 83
List No. 2 Maitreya, Manjusri, Gandhahasti, Jnanaketu, Bhadra- pala, Sagaramati, Aksayamati, Pratibhanakuta, Mahasthamaprapta, Sarvapayanjaha, Sarvasokatamonirghatamati, Jaliniprabha, Candrapra- bha, Amitaprabha, Gaganaganja, Sarvanivaranaviskambhin.
List No. 3 Maitreya, Amoghadarsin, Apayanjaha-Saivapayanjaha, Sarvasokatamonirghatamati, Gandhahasti, Surangama, Gaganaganja, Jnanaketu, Amitaprabha, Candraprabha, Bhadrapala, Jaliniprabha, Vajragarbha, Aksayamati, Pratibhanakuta, Samantabhadra.
1. SAMANTABHADRA1 Colour — Yellow and Blue Symbol— Jewel
/ The Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Universal Goodness) is important as the leader of the sixteen Bodhisattvas and thus is not a whit less important than the Future Buddha Maitreya who is at the head of the two other lists of Bodhisattvas. Samantabhadra 's popularity is further exemplified by frequent mention of his name in the Nispanna* yogavali. Samantabhadra is popular both in Tibet and China where his images are frequent and numerous.
/ He is described several times in the Nispannayogavall and in several places his form is identical with that of his sire. But there are places where his independent forms are described which are important for the purpose of iconographic studies. These are mentioned here./
In the Dharmadhatuvagisvara Mandala Samantabhadra is described as follows :
Samantebhadrah pltahsavyenavarado vamena utpalakhadgadharah.
NSP, p. 58.
*' Samantabhadra is yellow in colour, shows the Varada (boon) in the right Rand and holds on the left the sword on lotus." / | In the Durgatiparisodhana Mandala he is described as :/
Samantabhadrah suvarnavarno ratnamanjaribhrddaksinapanih katisthavamamustih. NSP, p. 67.
"Samantabhadra is of golden colour, holds a bunch of jewels in the right hand", while the left rests on the hip,',' f
I Once again Samantabhadra is described in the Kalacakra Mandala. There he is described as : /
Samantabhadrah nllah savyairvajrakartriparasun vamah>ghanta> kapala*Brahmasirarhsi dadhanah. Brahmasirahsthane, utpalam va* Dharmavajrasamapanno'yam. NSP, p. 85.
* Samantabhadra is blue in colour and holds in his three right hands the Vajra, the Kartri and the Para su, and in the three left hands the
1. For a full description see Hetty : GNB, p. 47, f.
84 BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY
Ghanta, the Kapala and the severed head of Brahma. Sometimes the head of Brahma is replaced by the Utpala. He is embraced by his consort Dharmavajra/' I
1 Although images of Samantabhadra are not rare in India, the bulk of his images are to be met with in China, At least five images of the Bodhisattva are found in Peiping alone. l\ Fig. 48 is a Nepalese drawing of the deity.
I Samantabhadra is popular in the Sadhanamala, although only one description of his is available. In the Lokanatha Sadhana he is described as : /
Samantabhadrah pitabho ratnotpalavarapradah
Sadhanamala, p. 49
"Samantabhadra is of yellowish colour, holds the jewel on a lotus and exhibits the Varada Mudra in his two hands." /
fo 2. AKSAYAMATI
\: Colour — Yellow Symbol — Sword or Jar
IThe second Bodhisattva is Aksayamati (Indestructible mind) and his name is widely known in the Buddhist ritualistic literature. Aksa- yamati is described thrice in the Nispannayogavall.^
In the Manjuvajra Mandala Aksayamati is described as :
Aksayamatih suvarnavarno vamamustim hrdyavasthapya savyena varadamudrah. NSP, p. 50.
/ ''Aksyamati is of golden complexion, and shows the clenched left hand against the chest, and exhibits the Varada mudra in the right/' I
/ In the Dharmadhatuvagisvara Mandala, he is described somewhat differently as :/
Aksayamatih pitah savyena khadgam vamenaabhayakamalam bibharti. NSP, p 58.
/ "Aksayamati is yellow in colour and flourishes the sword in the right hand, while he exhibits in the left hand the Abhaya rnudra and the Kamala." j
I A third description of this Bodhisattva occurs* in the Durgati- parisodhana Mandala and he is described in the following words : Aksayamatih sito h^stabhyarh jnanamrtakalasadharl
NSP, p. 67.
/ "Aksayamati is white in colour and with his two hands holds the bowl containing the nectar of knowledge." /
1. Clark : TLP, II, pp. 8, 9, 52, 133, 274.
THE BODHISATTVAS 85
( A Chinese statuette1 depicts him in the form of the Dhyani Buddha Amoghasiddhi with the right hand raised against the chest in the Abhayamudra and the left resting on the lap. | Fig. 49 is a Nepalese drawing of the deity. Fig. 50 illustrates a Chinese specimen.
3. KSITIGARBHA * Colour — Yellow or Green Symbol — Kalpa Tree on Jar
The third Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha (matrix of the earth) is rarely represented. He is described twice in the Nispannayogavali. In one, he is identical with his sire Vairocana with the Cakra symbol. In another, Ksitigarbha is described in the following words :
Ksitigarbhah pito daksinena krtabhusparso vamenabjastha*kalpa' drumadharah. ' NSP, p. 58.
"Ksitigarbha is yellow in colour, shows the earth -touching mudra in the right hand, and a lotus with the wish-giving tree (kalpavrksa) in the left."
Ksitigarbha is illustrated four times in the Peiping collection in different forms. y He is also found in Tibet.1 Fig. 51 is a Nepalese drawing of the deity.
Under Lokanatha Sadhana in the Sadhanamala a further des- cription occurs of the Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha. Here he is des- cribed in verse as :
Ksitigarbhah syamavarnah kalasam cabhayaiii tatha.
Sadhanamala, p. 49.
"Ksitigarbha is of green colour, and shows in his two hands the jar and the Abhaya mudra/'
4. AKASAGARBHA' Colour — Green